This article aims to provide a new philosophical explication of the doctrine of the Incarnation. A compositional model of the doctrine is formulated within the Dispositional Personhood account of Lynne Rudder Baker and the Composition as Identity framework of Donald L.M. Baxter. Formulating the doctrine of the Incarnation within this account and framework will enable it to be explicated in a clear and consistent manner, and the oft‐raised objections against this type of model can be answered.

Many ordinary things are made up of material things. For example, the statue of Ferdousi in the University of Tehran is made up of a particular piece of bronze. Calling the relation between the statue of Ferdousi and that piece of bronze material constitution, many philosophers have claimed that this relation between a material thing and the thing that it constitutes is identity. Baker, in contrast, believes that these things have genuine unity without necessary identity. In this article, I (...) first illustrate the principles of Baker’s theory and his explanation of this relation. Then I will assess the theory against objections. I will conclude that this theory can successfully explain relation between many of material things, but concerning things belonging to human beings, the theory fails to introduce a criterion for constitution. (shrink)

Providing the most thorough coverage available in one volume, this comprehensive, broadly based collection offers a wide variety of selections in four major genres, and also includes a section on film. Each of the five sections contains a detailed critical introduction to each form, brief biographies of the authors, and a clear, concise editorial apparatus. Updated and revised throughout, the new Fourth Edition adds essays by Margaret Mead, Russell Baker, Joan Didion, Annie Dillard, and Alice Walker; fiction by Nathaniel (...) Hawthorne, Ursula K. LeGuin, Anton Chekov, James Joyce, Katherine Mansfield, F. Scott Fitzgerald, William Faulkner, Alice Walker, Louise Erdrich, Donald Barthelme, and James McPherson; poems by John Donne, Robert Browning, Walt Whitman, Edwin Arlington Robinson, e.e. cummings, Langston Hughes, W.H. Auden, Philip Levine, and Louise Gluck; and plays by August Wilson, Marsha Norman, Wendy Wasserstein, and Vaclav Havel. The chapter devoted to film examines the relation of film to literature and gives the complete screenplay for Citizen Kane plus close analysis of a scene from the film. With its innovative structure, comprehensive coverage, and insightful and stimulating presentation of all kinds of literature, this is an anthology readers will turn to again and again. (shrink)

One of the currently most discussed themes in the philosophy of action is whether there is some kind of collective intention that explains what groups do independent of what the indi-viduals who make up the group intend and do. One of the main obstacles to solve this prob-lem is that on the one hand collective intentionality is no simple summation, aggregate, or dis-tributive pattern of individual intentionality (the Irreducibility Claim), while on the other hand collective intentionality is in the heads (...) of the participating individuals, so to speak, and so it is owned by each of the separate individuals who make up the group (the Individual Ownership Claim). The claims are contradictory and until now no satisfactory solution how to reconcile them has been found. In this article I argue that the constitution view, like the one developed by Lynne R. Baker, can provide a way to sidestep the contradiction. Just as a statue as such is constituted by the marble it is made of but has characteristics that are different from the mar-ble (a statue has a head and legs, while the marble hasn’t; while the marble is stony and the statue as such isn’t), I argue that a group is constituted by its members and that a group on the one hand and its members on the other hand have different characteristics. This is possible be-cause group and members are on different levels. Then there is no longer a contradiction be-tween the Irreducibility Claim and the Individual Ownership Claim, for the former claim con-cerns the group level and the latter claim concerns the level of the group members. This ex-plains that a group can have intentions that are no simple summation, aggregate, or distributive patterns of the intentions of its members and that group intentions can be different from if not contradictory to what the individual members taken together intend. (shrink)

Mit Beiträgen von Gerhard Vollmer, Dirk Koppelberg, Stephen Stich, W. v. O. Quine, Ansgar Beckermann, Dirk Hartmann und Rainer Lange, Mircea Flonta, Geert Keil, Peter Simons, Andreas Kemmerling, Lynne R. Baker, Holm Tetens und Peter Janich.

O exame ultrassonográfico é uma ferramenta diagnóstica de grande relevância na rotina veterinária, uma vez que, apresenta ampla difusão entre os atendimentos de animais e permite a avaliação de órgãos e estruturas de forma não invasiva, segura e rápida, auxiliando na determinação de diversas afecções, levando ao tratamento adequado e contribuindo de forma positiva no prognóstico do paciente. Atualmente, em muitos casos, a avaliação testicular não faz parte da rotina ultrassonográfica em exames de ênfase abdominal, devido à sua localização anatômica (...) no escroto, podendo assim levar ao diagnóstico limitado e ao tratamento inadequado do paciente quando na ausência da avaliação dos testículos, posto que diversas são as afecções testiculares que podem acometer cães e que apresentam características ultrassonográficas de fácil detecção. Dentre as principais alterações observadas por meio da ultrassonografia, os casos de orquite, criptorquidismo, torção e também neoformações neoplásicas testiculares correspondem à maior casuística, sendo o método ultrassonográfico um exame com 98% a 100% de sensibilidade e acurácia para diagnóstico destas. Dessa forma, o objetivo deste artigo de revisão bibliográfica é elucidar a importância da avaliação testicular em exames ultrassonográficos de rotina, discorrendo inicialmente sobre os aspectos anatômicos e ultrassonográficos, e posteriormente acerca das afecções mais comumente diagnosticadas na rotina veterinária, apresentando ainda as alterações ultrassonográficas causadas no parênquima testicular. PALAVRAS-CHAVE: Cães. Diagnóstico. Neoplasias testiculares. Ultrassonografia. -/- THE IMPORTANCE OF INCLUDING TESTICULAR ASSESSMENT IN THE TWO-DIMENSIONAL ABDOMINAL ULTRASOUND ROUTINE IN DOGS FOR THE DIAGNOSIS OF TESTICULAR DISEASES ABSTRACT: The ultrasound examination is a diagnostic tool of great relevance in the veterinary routine, as it is widespread in the current reality and allows the assessment of organs and structures in a non-invasive, safe and fast way, helping in the diagnosis of various conditions, leading to adequate treatment and positively contributing to the patient’s prognosis. Currently, in many cases, testicular evaluation is not part of the ultrasound evaluation in exams with abdominal emphasis, due to its anatomical location in the scrotum, which can lead to limited diagnosis and inadequate treatment of the patient in the absence of ultrasound evaluation of the testicles, since there are several testicular affections that can affect dogs and that present ultrasonographic characteristics that are easily detected. Among the main alterations observed during ultrasonographic exams, cases of orchitis, cryptorchidism, torsion and also testicular neoplastic neoformations correspond to the largest sample, with the ultrasonographic method being an exam with 98% to 100% sensitivity and accuracy for their diagnosis. Thus, the aim of this literature review article is to elucidate the importance of testicular evaluation in routine ultrasound examinations, initially discussing the anatomical and ultrasound aspects, and later on the most commonly diagnosed conditions in the veterinary routine, also presenting the ultrasound changes caused in the testicular parenchyma. KEYWORDS: Dogs. Diagnosis. Testicular neoplasm. Ultrasound. -/- REFERÊNCIAS AMANN, R.P. Functional Anatomy of the Adult Male. In: MCKINNON, A. O.; SQUIRES, E.L.; WENDY, E.V.; VARNER, D.D. Equine Reproduction. 2nd edition. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell, 2011. Cap. 95, p. 867 – 880 ARGENTA, F.F.; PEREIRA, P.R.; CAPRIOLI, R.A.; VIELMO, A.; SONNE, F.; PAVARANI, S.P.; DRIEMEIER, D. Neoplasmas testiculares em cães no Rio Grande do Sul, Brasil. Acta Scientiae Veterinariae, v.44, n.1413, p.1-6, 2016. DA SILVA, E.I.C. Anatomia e Fisiologia do Sistema Reprodutivo dos Animais Domésticos. Instituto Federal de Pernambuco. Departamento de Reprodução Animal. 2020. DAVIDSON, A. P; BAKER, T. W. Reproductive ultrasound of the dog and tom. Topics in companion animal medicine, v.24, n.2, p.64-70, 2009. DOMINGOS, T. C. S.; SALOMÃO, M. C. Meios de diagnóstico das principais afecções testiculares em cães: revisão de literatura. Revista Brasileira de Reprodução Animal, Belo Horizonte, v.35, n.4, p.393-399, out./dez. 2011. FELDMAN, E. C.; NELSON, R. W. Disorders of the Testes and Epidymides. In FELDMAN, E. C.; NELSON, R. W. (Eds.), Canine and Feline Endocrinology and Reproduction. 3 ed., St. Louis Missouri: WB Saunders Co. 2004. p. 961 – 977. FONSECA, C.V.C.V. Prevalência e tipos de alterações testiculares em canídeos. Dissertação de Mestrado Integrado em Medicina Veterinária. Universidade Técnica de Lisboa, Faculdade de Medicina Veterinária. Lisboa, 2009. HECHT, S. Trato Reprodutivo Masculino. In: PENNICK, D.; D’ANJOU, M.A. Atlas de Ultrassonografia de pequenos animais. Rio de Janeiro: Guanabara Koogan, 2011. p.415-438. (shrink)

Το ερώτημα πώς μπορούν να προσδιοριστούν οι λειτουργίες του νου και σύμφωνα με ποιες αρχές θα ήταν χρήσιμο να κατηγοριοποιηθούν είναι διττό και αφορά τόσο στην επιστήμη, όσο και την φιλοσοφία: στην πρώτη, εφόσον μέλημά της είναι η αναζήτηση συμπερασμάτων διαμέσου του πειράματος και της ανάλυσης και στην δεύτερη, εφόσον η αποσαφήνιση επιστημονικών εννοιών και ορισμών διευθετείται κυρίως φιλοσοφικά. Προϋπόθεση για μία τέτοια συσχέτιση είναι οι αρχές της επιστήμης να συμβαδίζουν προς τις αρχές της εμπειρίας και οι κατευθύνσεις της φιλοσοφίας (...) να μην αντίκειται προς τους όρους του επιστημονικού πειράματος: να προσφέρει δηλαδή, η φιλοσοφία, τους ορισμούς της πραγματικότητας, σύμφωνα με τους επιστημονικούς κανόνες που διέπουν αυτούς τους ορισμούς. Επιστήμη και φιλοσοφία οφείλουν να ενσωματώνουν και να γενικεύουν πληροφορίες κατά τρόπο ανάλογο προς τις προτάσεις και της εκφράσεις μιας φυσικής γλώσσας. Ωστόσο, σε μία εποχή όπου τα συμπεράσματα της επιστήμης ξεπερνούν την δυνατότητα των αισθήσεων να ανατρέχουν σε προϋπάρχουσες εμπειρίες και να επιβεβαιώνονται διαμέσου αυτών, δημιουργούνται συζητήσεις γύρω από το εάν η φιλοσοφία, μπορεί να συνεχίσει να στέκεται δίπλα στην εννοιολογική γνώση και να ταξινομεί με ακρίβεια τα αποτελέσματά της. Εξετάζοντας το σύνολο των σχέσεων μεταξύ αισθητικών και λογικών μορφών, στην μελέτη που ακολουθεί θα εξηγήσουμε γιατί η φιλοσοφία, διαμέσου μιας μεθοδολογίας που είναι αποτέλεσμα ιστορικής κληρονομιάς αλλά και κοινωνικής πρακτικής, όχι μόνον αφήνει χώρο, αλλά ενθαρρύνει την δημιουργία νέων συντακτικών σχέσεων με την επιστήμη, ανοίγοντας δρόμο για την αισθητική κατανόηση της επιστημονικής μέτρησης, αλλά και της ειδικής φύσης του μετρούμενου. Δεν ξέρω εάν υπάρχει μεγαλύτερο χάρισμα για τον άνθρωπο από την ικανότητα να εξισορροπεί τις λειτουργίες του νου του: τη λογική με το σκοπό και τη διασκεπτική ενέργεια με τη βούληση. Αρκεί να αναλογιστούμε ότι, καμία σκοπιμότητα δεν στερείται λογικών κρίσεων και αντίστροφα: κάθε λογική κρίση οδηγείται από πρακτικές σκοπιμότητες, από αξιολογικές συνιστώσες. Πώς όμως μπορούν να προσδιοριστούν οι λειτουργίες του νου και ακόμη περισσότερο, σύμφωνα με ποιες αρχές μπορούν να κατηγοριοποιηθούν; Πρόκειται για ένα ερώτημα επιστημονικό, εφόσον αναζητά λύση διαμέσου του πειράματος και της ανάλυσης, ταυτόχρονα όμως και φιλοσοφικό, δεδομένου ότι οι επιστημονικές έννοιες, όπως αποκαλύπτει η χρήση τους, βασίζονται κατά κύριο λόγο στις κατευθύνσεις της φιλοσοφίας. Προϋπόθεση σε μία τέτοια συσχέτιση είναι οι κατευθύνσεις και τα συμπεράσματα της φιλοσοφίας να μην αντίκειται στα αποτελέσματα και τις μετρήσεις του επιστημονικού πειράματος: ρόλος της επιστήμης είναι η λογική μελέτη και ανάλυση των φυσικών φαινομένων, και της φιλοσοφίας η αποσαφήνιση των εννοιών. Η επιστήμη αυτοκαθορίζεται, δηλαδή ανατρέχει στις βάσεις της επιβεβαιώνοντας ή αναθεωρώντας τα δεδομένα, διατηρώντας έτσι ζωντανά τα ερωτήματά της. Σκοπός της επιστήμης είναι, διαμέσου της ανάκλησης των ερωτημάτων της, να καλύπτει όσο το δυνατό περισσότερα κενά. Έτσι κινείται η επιστήμη: μεταβαίνοντας από το απλούστερο στο συνθετότερο και αντίστροφα, προκειμένου να επιβεβαιώνει τις παρατηρήσεις της με βάση την πρόβλεψη. Και πώς λειτουργεί η εννοιολογική γνώση; Ό, τι κάνει ο νους είναι να αντιλαμβάνεται τη φυσική επαναληπτικότητα, την περιοδικότητα των φαινομένων και να αναζητά τα αίτιά τους. Προσδιορίζοντας τα αίτια στο περιβάλλον του χωροχρόνου, ο άνθρωπος κατανοεί τις συνθήκες, δηλαδή τις προϋποθέσεις της επαναληπτικότητας και βάσει αυτής της κατανόησης, προβλέπει το πώς θα αντιδράσει η ύλη όταν βρεθεί κάτω από παρόμοιες συνθήκες. Η πρόβλεψη, επομένως, βασίζεται στη μελέτη της επαναληπτικότητας των φαινομένων. Είναι ωστόσο η εμπειρία μας, ασφαλής βάση άντλησης πληροφοριών; Τα φυσικά φαινόμενα ιδωμένα ως εμπειρικά αποτελέσματα αλληλεπιδράσεων, κατηγοριοποιούνται με κριτήριο τις μεταβολές που προκαλούν. Ωστόσο, ο συνδυασμός των δυνάμεων της φύσης, προκειμένου να κατανοηθεί, πρέπει να βρει ένα ασφαλές διασκεπτικό μονοπάτι, μία οικεία κατάσταση, σε σχέση με την εμπειρία. Και πώς ο άνθρωπος κατανοεί τις γνώσεις που αποκτά διαμέσου της παρατήρησης; Έχοντας κατανοήσει ότι η φύση, για τη διατήρηση των ισορροπιών της, συντηρεί και εφαρμόζει τους ίδιους μηχανισμούς με τους οποίους έχει εφοδιάσει τον άνθρωπο, ο άνθρωπος συσχετίζει τις μεταβολές που συμβαίνουν στο περιβάλλον με τις μεταβολές που προκαλεί ο ίδιος με τις πράξεις του, οι οποίες είναι αποτελέσματα βουλητικών σκοπιμοτήτων. Τα αποτελέσματα αυτά ερμηνεύονται από τη λογική ως σχέσεις μεταξύ σκοπών-αποτελεσμάτων. Παρατηρώντας τα αποτελέσματα των φυσικών μηχανισμών στον εαυτό του, ο άνθρωπος, μπορεί να επιτύχει ασφαλή πρόβλεψη των αποτελεσμάτων των λειτουργιών των ίδιων μηχανισμών σε άλλα επίπεδα της φύσης. Επομένως, κάθε φαινόμενο μπορεί να προβλεφθεί, εφόσον περιέχει αναγνωρισμένα για την αποτελεσματικότητά του επίπεδα ασφαλούς σύγκρισης. Άλλωστε ο όρος φυσικός νόμος, φέρει το ειδικό βάρος του σκοπού, της τελικότητας, που είναι πέρα για πέρα χαρακτηριστικό του βουλητικού μας νου: η φύση δεν βούλεται, επομένως δεν μπορεί να παράγει νόμους. Ό,τι βούλεται είναι ο άνθρωπος, ο οποίος είναι προσανατολισμένος από την φύση να αναγνωρίζει λογικές σχέσεις στην αλληλεπίδραση των φυσικών φαινομένων. Επομένως όχι η φύση, αλλά ο άνθρωπος δημιουργεί τους νόμους, με βάση την αρχή της λογικής τακτοποίησης των παρατηρήσεών του. Πιο αναλυτικά, η καταγραφή και κατηγοριοποίηση των αποτελεσμάτων της παρατήρησης της ύλης, με βάση τους όρους παρατήρησης του εαυτού μας, συνιστά χρήσιμο εργαλείο κατανόησης του περιβάλλοντος: παρατηρώντας τα φαινόμενα, ο νους ανακαλεί τις εμπειρίες του, συνθέτοντας και ανασυνθέτοντάς τες. Όταν τα αποτελέσματα των παρατηρήσεων συμφωνούν με τις προβλέψεις, παράγεται γνώση. Έτσι ο νους μετατρέπει την γνώση των φαινομένων, σε αρχή τεκμηρίωσης συμπερασμάτων, την οποία χρησιμοποιεί για περαιτέρω αναλύσεις και συνθέσεις. Οι γνώσεις που αποκτώνται από την παρατήρηση, ανακαλούνται αυτόματα όταν ο νους αντιληφθεί ότι υπάρχει ιδανική σχέση ανάμεσά τους ώστε να συνδυαστούν. Πώς όμως λειτουργεί η εμπειρία; Η εμπειρία ομοιομορφίας της ύλης, δίνει την εντύπωση ότι οι μεταβολές στο περιβάλλον συνδέονται με κάποιου είδους σκοποθεσία. Ωστόσο, οι φυσικοί νόμοι δεν είναι παρά οι εννοιολογικές διατυπώσεις του πώς αντιλαμβανόμαστε εμείς οι ίδιοι την πραγματικότητα και με ποιους τρόπους μπορούμε να τη μεταβάλλουμε προς όφελός μας. Αναφέρονται δε, οι φυσικοί νόμοι, μόνο στη μία πλευρά του πανάρχαιου κοσμογονικού προβλήματος της αποσαφήνισης των τρόπων αλληλεπίδρασης των αισθητών. Μιας αλληλεπίδρασης που κινείται στα όρια μεταξύ συμφωνίας και αντιπαράθεσης, δεδομένου ότι η βεβαιότητα της φυσικής σταθερότητας δεν είναι τίποτε περισσότερο από μία προοπτική κατανόησης της πραγματικότητας σε μία δεδομένη στιγμή. Τι συμβαίνει ωστόσο όταν υπάρχει διάσταση μεταξύ προβλέψεων και αποτελεσμάτων; Στην περίπτωση αυτή, η θεωρία ανατρέχει στις εμπειρίες και τις ανασυνθέτει έτσι ώστε να επιτύχει τον πλησιέστερο δυνατό συνδυασμό. Έτσι λειτουργεί η λογική: ως πρωτότυπη εφαρμογή των δεδομένων της εμπειρίας, σε σχέση προς τον θεωρητικό κανόνα των προβλέψεων. Και ποια είναι η προϋπόθεση της πρωτοτυπίας όσον αφορά στον νου; Η προϋπόθεση αυτή δεν είναι άλλη από τη δημιουργικότητα: ο δημιουργικός νους, διαμέσου της παρατήρησης, αποκαλύπτει τους τρόπους με τους οποίους η ύλη αλληλεπιδρά, και δημιουργεί κάτι εντελώς διαφορετικό, όχι ως προς την πρώτη ύλη, αλλά ως προς την μορφή. Αυτή είναι δημιουργικότητα: η ενσάρκωση των λογικών συνθέσεων, το αποτύπωμα του νου στην ύλη. Εδώ εισέρχεται ο ρόλος της φιλοσοφίας, με σκοπό την αποσαφήνιση νέων και πιο σύνθετων μορφών και εννοιών, με γνώμονα τον βαθμό αποσαφήνισής τους. Ωστόσο αποσαφήνιση σημαίνει ταυτόχρονα και συστηματοποίηση, δηλαδή δημιουργική ενίσχυση των γνώσεων διαμέσου μιας ακλόνητης διαβεβαίωσης που θα ονομάζαμε προ-λογική ή καλύτερα αισθητική. Αποτελεί ωστόσο η βεβαιότητα που προκαλεί η αισθητική εποπτεία ισάξιο κριτήριο γνώσης με την λογική, ώστε να τοποθετεί τα συμπεράσματά της δίπλα στα επιστημονικά; Προσεγγίζοντας το ζήτημα από την επιστημονική σκοπιά, παρατηρούμε ότι από την περίοδο της ανθρωπιστικής επανάστασης και έπειτα, βρίσκεται σε εξέλιξη μία συστηματική προσπάθεια ανάδειξης της λογικής ως μοναδικής κατηγορίας του νου, η οποία λειτουργεί σε βάρος της γενικής προεπιστημονικής κοσμοθεωρίας περί ύπαρξης μιας ακλόνητα επιβεβαιωμένης γνώσης, που εμπειρικά προηγείται των εννοιών. Ο νους, για τους θεωρητικούς της επιστημονικής προσέγγισης, συνδέεται με τα αποτελέσματα των μελετών της ανατομίας του εγκεφάλου, οι οποίες αποκαλύπτουν σε σημαντικό βαθμό τα κέντρα των νοητικών διεργασιών. Στο περιβάλλον αυτό αντιπαρατέθηκαν οι δύο θεωρίες προσέγγισης των λειτουργιών του νου: ο δυϊσμός, με κύριο εισηγητή τον Descartes, ο οποίος υποστήριζε την αλήθεια των προεπιστημονικών αντιλήψεων, περί ενός νου ελεύθερου να ανατρέχει σε μη συμβατές προς την επιστημονική κοσμοθεωρία υποθέσεις όταν η λογική αδυνατεί να επιλύσει τα λογικά αδιέξοδα, και ο μονισμός, που εξέφραζε ότι η βιολογική ενότητα νου και πνεύματος είναι εν δυνάμει ικανή να καλύψει κάθε λογική αδυναμία. Σύμφωνα με τον δυϊσμό, εγκέφαλος και νόηση αποτελούν διαφορετικές υποστάσεις, οι οποίες συναντώνται και αλληλεπιδρούν μεταξύ τους: εγκέφαλος και νους, ύλη και πνεύμα συνθέτουν αλλά και συντίθενται στο περιβάλλον της ζώσας πραγματικότητας, και εκδηλώνονται ως γνώσεις. Ο νους χρησιμοποιεί ως πρώτη ύλη τον εγκέφαλο, ενώ ο εγκέφαλος μετέρχεται εξωλογικών υποθέσεων που φαντάζουν ικανές να περιγράψουν την υπερβατική προέλευση των αρχών που διέπουν την λειτουργία του. Δεδομένου ότι δεν υπήρχε αποδεδειγμένα σημείο αλληλεπίδρασης μεταξύ των δύο υποστάσεων, της υλικής και της υπερβατικής, ο Descartes υπέθεσε ότι η λογική ψυχή συνδέεται με την υλική υπόσταση στο εσωτερικό του εγκεφάλου και συγκεκριμένα στην περιοχή της επίφυσης. Στην πραγματικότητα, ο λόγος ήταν ότι κανείς δεν γνώριζε τίποτε για την λειτουργία της επίφυσης -ούτε σήμερα γνωρίζουμε επακριβώς τον ρόλο της- επομένως εύκολα μπορούσε να θεωρηθεί ως μηχανισμός σύνδεσης μεταξύ ψυχής και σώματος. Από την άλλη μεριά, οι οπαδοί της μονιστικής θεώρησης αναρωτήθηκαν πώς είναι δυνατόν μια άυλη υπόσταση όπως είναι η λογική ψυχή, να εντοπίζεται και να προκαλεί μεταβολές στο εσωτερικό του φθαρτού σώματος; Απάντηση στο λεγόμενο καρτεσιανό παράδοξο περί αλληλεπίδρασης μεταξύ των δύο υποστάσεων του ανθρώπου, άυλης και φθαρτής, επιχείρησαν να δώσουν κυρίως οι Γάλλοι εγκυκλοπαιδιστές και οι Γερμανοί υλιστές φιλόσοφοι, οι θέσεις των οποίων οδήγησαν σταδιακά στην αποπνευματοποίηση της νόησης. Από εκεί και έπειτα πειραματισμοί της βιολογίας και της νευροφυσιολογίας απέδειξαν την εξέλιξη του νευρικού συστήματος κατά την πορεία των γεωλογικών αιώνων από τα πρώιμα στάδια συγκέντρωσης νευρικών συμπλεγμάτων στις κατώτερες περιοχές του εγκεφαλικού φλοιού, προς τα ανώτερα. Αξίζει ωστόσο να σημειωθεί, ότι παρόλη την πρόοδο των νευροεπιστημών, πολλά ερωτήματα που αφορούν στη σύνδεση μεταξύ εγκεφάλου-νόησης και ερμηνείας νοητικών λειτουργιών που συνδέονται με την παραπάνω σχέση, παραμένουν αναπάντητα ακόμη και σήμερα. Ο μονισμός επιμένει ότι ο νους αποτελεί παράγωγο της ύλης και απορρίπτει ως μεταφυσική κάθε τοποθέτηση πέρα από τα όρια της ζώσας πραγματικότητας. Δεν προσπαθούμε να επιλύσουμε την παραπάνω διαμάχη, δεδομένου ο κύριος λόγος μελέτης και αποσαφήνισης θεμελιωδών ορισμών γύρω από την ποσότητα και το είδος της ενέργειας που διοχετεύεται στους νευρώνες δημιουργώντας ό,τι ο Honderich περιγράφει ως ενσυνείδητες εκδηλώσεις, βρίσκεται στα χέρια της επιστήμης. Η εγκεφαλοποίηση της νόησης, αν και -ορθά- συνδέθηκε με τα επιτεύγματα της λογικής, εντούτοις δημιούργησε μία αυτοπεποίθηση για την ανωτερότητα της λογικής ως μεθόδου ικανής, όχι μόνο να ερμηνεύει, αλλά και να κατευθύνει τα πράγματα, λειτουργώντας a priori ως μηχανισμός που εμπεριέχεται στο εσωτερικό τους. Τούτη η προοπτική, αν και κατευθυνόμενη από επιστημονικούς κύκλους και -κατά κανόνα- αντίθετη προς την φιλοσοφική μεθοδολογία, εντούτοις εκδηλώθηκε ως φιλοσοφία, διαιρεμένη μάλιστα σε κινήματα ή σχολές, με κοινό χαρακτηριστικό την βεβαιότητα, ότι η λογική ενυπάρχει μέσα στην φύση των πραγμάτων, και εκδηλώνεται νομοτελειακά. Μιλώ για τα κινήματα του θετικισμού, του λογικού θετικισμού και του ιστορικισμού, τα οποία συστηματοποιήθηκαν κατά τα μέσα του εικοστού αιώνα και εξάντλησαν την επιχειρηματολογία τους σε σύντομο χρονικό διάστημα. Και πώς η φιλοσοφία υπερασπίζεται το δικαίωμά της να αποσαφηνίζει επιστημονικές έννοιες με γνώμονα την δημιουργική προοπτική; Η απάντηση της φιλοσοφίας προέρχεται από μία ιστορική πορεία χιλιετιών, με βαθιές πολιτισμικές και κοινωνικές ρίζες. Ο νους, ως κινητήριος αρχή της γνώσης αλλά και των αξιών, της ηθικής, συνδέεται με έργα που έχουν ένα κοινό χαρακτηριστικό: είναι όλα παράγωγα αισθητικής και λογικής γνώσης. Φιλοσοφικά, ο νους, αρχικά, προσλαμβάνει αισθητικά το περίγραμμα, την μορφή μιας ιδέας, έπειτα την επεξεργάζεται λογικά, και εν τέλει την πραγματοποιεί. Η αισθητική δραστηριότητα, ως φιλοσοφική κατηγορία, εντοπίζεται στο αρχικό στάδιο της νοητικής λειτουργίας, ενώ η πραγματοποίηση στο τελικό. Τόσο η αισθητική δραστηριότητα, όσο και η λογική λειτουργούν σύμφωνα με έναν σκοπό: τη διασάφηση των ορίων πραγματικότητας· και βούληση είναι η λειτουργία, που ενεργοποιεί το υποκείμενο να πράξει σύμφωνα με τις επιταγές του σκοπού αυτού. Η διαίρεση του νου σε κατηγορίες έχει αφετηρία την σκέψη του Αριστοτέλη. Ο εισηγητής της λογικής επιστήμης πρότεινε τον διαχωρισμό των αρχών του νου, σύμφωνα με τον χαρακτήρα τους σε θεωρητικό, πρακτικό και ποιητικό. Ο νους, στο θεωρητικό επίπεδο επεξεργάζεται συλλογισμούς που οδηγούν σε περιγραφές γεγονότων, στο πρακτικό, συλλογισμούς που οδηγούν σε ηθικές αξιολογήσεις ενώ στο ποιητικό, συλλογισμούς που αποσκοπούν στη δημιουργία καλλιτεχνικών εκφράσεων και γενικότερα, ωφέλιμων έργων. Ο Benedetto Croce στο έργο του Estetica, σημειώνει ότι οι δύο μορφές του θεωρητικού πνεύματος η αισθητική εποπτεία και η λογική αποτελούν διαφορετικές, πλην ισότιμες μορφές γνώσης: κάθε έννοια περιέχει μία πλευρά αισθητική. Ως γνώση, η αισθητική εποπτεία δεν έχει ανάγκη λογικής επιβεβαίωσης· αντίθετα, η λογική επιβεβαίωση κατηγοριοποιεί, κατατάσσει και αναλύει αισθητικές πληροφορίες για να κατανοήσει τους νόμους που διέπουν το περιβάλλον. Ο πρώτος βαθμός του θεωρητικού μας νου, επομένως, χρησιμοποιεί ποικίλους τρόπους αποσαφήνισης των εισερχόμενων πληροφοριών, προκειμένου να δημιουργήσει και να μεταδώσει επικοινωνιακά μία μορφή. Το ερώτημα εδώ είναι εάν η αισθητική εποπτεία, περιέχει όλα εκείνα τα στοιχεία που μπορούν να γίνουν κατανοητά και να γενικευθούν κατά τον ίδιο τρόπο. Οι θεωρητικές βάσεις για την ανάδειξη ενός καθολικού κριτηρίου που επιβεβαιώνει την ομοιογένεια των αισθητικών γνώσεων τέθηκαν από τον David Hume. Ο Hume διαπίστωσε ότι όλοι έχουμε μέσα μας ένα έμφυτο προγνωστικό κριτήριο, το οποίο μας επιτρέπει να προσλαμβάνουμε τα συναισθήματα των συνανθρώπων μας. Διαμέσου της Συμπάθειας (empathy) όπως ονόμασε ο Hume την ενέργεια αυτή του νου, αλληλεπιδρούμε με τον συναισθηματικό κόσμο των συνανθρώπων μας, ακόμη και όταν δεν έχουμε ίδια γνώση των εμπειριών τους. Πρόκειται για έναν ενσυναίσθητο τρόπο επικοινωνίας, βασισμένο στην -κατά κύριο λόγο- ανάμνηση βιωμάτων καταγεγραμμένων στην προ-λογική περιοχή της εμπειρίας μας. Σήμερα η γενετική έχει ερμηνεύσει τη δυνατότητα αναγνώρισης των συναισθημάτων μεταξύ των ανθρώπων ως ειδική εκδήλωση ενός έμφυτου αλτρουισμού, ο οποίος είναι προγραμματισμένος να προσανατολίζει το θυμικό προς ό,τι ωφελεί το είδος μας, ενώ η νευροβιολογία ερευνά το ενδεχόμενο ύπαρξης εγκεφαλικών δομών που επεξεργάζονται και ενσωματώνουν τις ηθικές αξίες διαμέσου διαδικασιών ανταλλαγής-αφομοίωσης συμπεριφορών. Είναι επομένως, το συναίσθημα ενδιάθετος τρόπος επικοινωνίας; Παρόλο που ο Hume υπέθεσε ορθά μία προλογική λειτουργία, στην οποία «απευθύνεται η σκέψη», δηλαδή μία λειτουργία που προϋπάρχει και επιβεβαιώνει κάθε εννοιολογική αρχή, στην συνέχεια συνέδεσε αυτή την λειτουργία όχι με προλογικά χαρακτηριστικά, δηλαδή γνώσεις, αλλά με συναισθηματικές ποιότητες, δηλαδή ψυχολογικά αποτυπώματα εμπειριών. Δεν είναι ωστόσο το συναίσθημα ό,τι μεταδίδει την ενσυναίσθηση, αλλά η αισθητική εποπτεία. Συναισθηματικές εκδηλώσεις παρατηρούνται και σε άλογα είδη, συνδεδεμένες μάλιστα με συγκεκριμένες εμπειρίες ωφέλιμων ή μη ωφέλιμων καταστάσεων. Σε καμία περίπτωση ωστόσο αυτές οι εκδηλώσεις δεν είναι να δυνατόν να γενικευθούν μεταξύ των ζώων, να αποτελέσουν δηλαδή γνώση. Το συναίσθημα δεν λειτουργεί ως παραγωγός αισθητικών γνώσεων, ούτε ως γνωσιακός αναμεταδότης μεταξύ των κοινωνικών ατόμων, αλλά μάλλον ως λειτουργικός εκδείκτης του γεγονότος της αισθητικής εποπτείας. Συνοψίζουμε λοιπόν, αναφέροντας ότι με τον όρο αισθητική εποπτεία, φιλοσοφικά, συχνά εννοούμε την άμεση επιβεβαιωμένη εμπειρία, η οποία δεν χρειάζεται την λογική ανάλυση προκειμένου να αποκτήσει καθολική ισχύ: η βεβαιότητα για τον χρόνο, τον χώρο, τη μορφή των αντικειμένων, προέρχεται από παραστάσεις του νου που έχουμε σχηματίσει διαμέσου αισθητικής εποπτείας της πραγματικότητας, δηλαδή γνώσης των μορφών. Σύμφωνα με τον Croce, η λογική, όπως και η αισθητική εποπτεία, αποτελούν κατηγορίες του θεωρητικού μας νου. Η αισθητική εποπτεία αφορά στην ατομική στιγμή, ενώ η λογική στην καθολική. Αντίστοιχα, η βούληση και η ηθική, αναφέρονται στο πρακτικό επίπεδο του νου, και λειτουργούν η πρώτη ατομικά και η δεύτερη καθολικά. Η ατομικότητα του πρακτικού νου, της βούλησης, κατά τη γενίκευσή της, παράγει ηθική. Το γεγονός ότι τα κίνητρα των πράξεών μας μπορούν να αναλυθούν εννοιολογικά, να επιβεβαιωθούν διασκεπτικά ως προς το κύρος, την καθαρότητα και την αποτελεσματικότητά τους, είναι δηλωτικό του ότι η πρακτικότητα αλληλεπιδρά με τη λογική· πρόκειται για μία αλληλεπίδραση τόσο έντονη, ώστε κάθε διαχωρισμός της βούλησης από τη λογική, του σκοπού από τη γνώση που συνεπάγεται η ενέργειά της, να καθίσταται δυσχερής. Γιατί; Ο νους χρησιμοποιεί τις δυνάμεις του μεμονωμένα ή σε συνδυασμό, προκειμένου να εξυπηρετεί κατ’ αρχήν, τις ανάγκες της στιγμής. Αυτή η λειτουργία, παρόλο που αποτελεί a priori προδιάθεση, η οποία προηγείται κάθε σκοπού, εντούτοις αποτελεί ταυτόχρονα και σκοπό. Καταλήγουμε επομένως στο πρώτο συμπέρασμα, ότι η τάση του ανθρώπου να θέτει σκοπούς, αποτελεί παρακλάδι του ίδιου κορμού από τον οποίο προέρχονται οι φυσικές προδιαθέσεις. Και δεν θα ήταν δύσκολο να απαντούσαμε στο πώς η τάση αυτή μπορεί να συμπλεύσει με τη νοητότητα, εάν εξειδικεύαμε το ερώτημα από το γενικό στο ειδικό. Λέμε λοιπόν ότι, σημασία δεν έχει η πρώτη ύλη που χρησιμοποιεί ο νους, ούτε η προέλευσή της, αλλά η επεξεργασία της: αντίθετα με τα άλογα είδη, ο άνθρωπος μπορεί να παρατηρεί και να αναγνωρίζει τα δεδομένα των παρατηρήσεών του. Παρατηρώντας τον εαυτό του ως ειδικό μέρος του περιβάλλοντος στο οποίο ανήκει, ο άνθρωπος συνειδητοποιεί ότι είναι αυτόνομος ως προς το να σκέπτεται, να προβλέπει, να κρίνει, να θέτει σκοπούς και να πράττει. Η εμπειρία είναι η στέρεη βάση των αισθητικών προσλήψεων, των λογικών προβλέψεων και της βουλητικής πρακτικότητας, της ίδιας της ηθικής: διαμέσου των αποτελεσμάτων των μετρήσεων των φυσικών φαινομένων αναγνωρίζουμε τις ποιότητες, τις διαστάσεις και τις δυνάμεις της ύλης και κατανοούμε το περιβάλλον. Τι είναι όμως η ύλη και κατ’ επέκταση το περιβάλλον; Ύλη είναι η εμπειρία της αλληλεπίδρασης των δυνάμεων της περιρρέουσας ενέργειας στον τρισδιάστατο χώρο και μονοδιάστατο προς τα εμπρός χρόνο, τα συγχρονισμένα αποτελέσματα των οποίων αναγνωρίζουμε διαμέσου των αισθήσεών μας ως μορφές. Ό,τι λοιπόν δίνει υπόσταση στην ύλη είναι ο τρόπος με τον οποίο την προσλαμβάνουμε αισθητικά· και ο τρόπος με τον οποίο συσχετίζουμε τα αποτελέσματα των αισθητικών προσλήψεων είναι η λογική. Κατέχουμε επομένως την καθαρή γνώση των πραγμάτων; Αυτό είναι αδύνατο να συμβαίνει, δεδομένου ότι η φύση μας έχει εφοδιάσει με πρωταρχικά με μηχανισμούς παραγωγής γνώσεων μόνο χρήσιμων για την επιβίωσή μας. Η υπό όρους επαφή μας με τη γνώση, περιχαρακώνει τα όρια της εμπειρίας μας: μπορούμε να είμαστε βέβαιοι για την ύλη που μας περιβάλλει και για τον νου μας, δεδομένου ότι βιώνουμε τα αποτελέσματα της μεταξύ τους αλληλεπίδρασης. Η γνώση επομένως, ορίζεται και ορίζει την εμπειρία: την εμπειρία των αισθητικών μορφών, και την εμπειρία των εννοιών. Και η ειδική κατηγορία του νου που μας ωθεί να μεταβάλλουμε τις δυνάμεις του περιβάλλοντος σύμφωνα με τις επιδιώξεις μας είναι η βούληση, η οποία στη γενίκευσή της παράγει ηθική. Επομένως η βούληση καθοδηγεί την εμπειρία μας να κατακτά ό,τι είναι χρήσιμο για το συμφέρον του ατόμου και κατ’ επέκταση του είδους. Και πώς ο άνθρωπος οριοθετεί τα τις γνώσεις του; Οι νόμοι των φαινομένων, δεν είναι παρά τα αισθητικά αποτελέσματα των ενορατικών βεβαιοτήτων προς ορισμένες αρχές, οι οποίες μας φαίνονται αδιαπραγμάτευτες: η εναλλαγή ημέρας-νύχτας, η εναλλαγή των εποχών, η πορεία του χρόνου προς τα εμπρός, αποτελούν εμπειρικές επιβεβαιώσεις που αποδεχόμαστε, προκειμένου να προδιαγράψουμε τις ζωές, τα έργα μας και να περιχαρακώσουμε τα όρια των βουλήσεων και των πράξεών μας. Τι γίνεται όμως όταν η ίδια η νόηση ανατρέπει αυτούς τους κανόνες θέτοντας τη λογική υπεράνω της αισθητικής εποπτείας; Η σύγχρονη επιστήμη μπορεί να είναι βέβαιη για τη σχετικότητα του χώρου και του χρόνου μέσα στον οποίο υπάρχουμε και κινούμαστε. Ο χρόνος, παρόλο που είναι σχετικός, εντούτοις η κίνησή του γίνεται αντιληπτή από τις αισθήσεις μας ως σταθερή, με μονογραμμική πορεία προς τα εμπρός∙ λειτουργεί δηλαδή, η κίνηση στον χρόνο, ως κριτήριο εντοπισμού της θέσης μας στον τρισδιάστατο χώρο· απαντά, επομένως ο υπολογισμός του χρόνου, στο ερώτημα πότε, σε σχέση με το ερώτημα που∙ και αντίστροφα: ο υπολογισμός του χώρου απαντά στο ερώτημα που, σε σχέση με το πότε. Η σχετικότητα του χώρου και του χρόνου είναι -πέρα για πέρα- πραγματική, όσο πραγματική είναι η κίνηση της Γης γύρω από τον Ήλιο. Πρόκειται για μία αλήθεια η οποία, σε καμία περίπτωση δεν μπορεί να γίνει αντιληπτή από τις αισθήσεις, αλλά μόνον από τη λογική. Ας προσπαθήσουμε να φανταστούμε αισθητικά την σχετικότητα του χώρου και του χρόνου∙ ενός χρόνου που στρεβλώνεται, που δεν έχει αρχή, τέλος, που κινείται προς κάθε κατεύθυνση∙ και αντίστοιχα ενός χώρου αεικίνητου, ασταθή, και άμορφου. Πώς μπορεί να περιγραφεί μία τέτοια πραγματικότητα; Η απάντηση είναι ότι δεν μπορεί· και δεν μπορεί, γιατί, η αισθητική εποπτεία μας είναι κατασκευασμένη να αναγνωρίζει μόνο τρισδιάστατες μορφές. Η διαπίστωση ότι ο νους έχει την τάση να υπερβαίνει τα στενά δεσμά της αισθητικής εποπτείας, αν και φιλοσοφικά παραπέμπει στις πλατωνικές Ιδέες και το παράδειγμα του Σπηλαίου, εντούτοις ωθεί προς μία κατεύθυνση εντελώς διαφορετική από εκείνη της μεταφυσικής: στην κατεύθυνση μιας απαίτησης για διεύρυνση των ορίων της αισθητικής εποπτείας υπό την κατεύθυνση των λογικών συμπερασμάτων. Μπορεί, ωστόσο, ο άνθρωπος να υπερβεί τα εμπειρικά όρια των αισθητικών πληροφοριών και να κατανοήσει την βαθύτερη πραγματικότητα της εννοιολογικής γνώσης; Συνδυάζοντας αισθητικές μορφές, η φαντασία μπορεί να σχηματίζει ό, τι σύνθεση επιθυμεί: απλή, πολύπλοκη, αλλόκοτη, υπερβολική, ακόμη και νοσηρή ή αποτρόπαιη, αρκεί η πρώτη ύλη που χρησιμοποιεί να προέρχεται από το περιβάλλον της επιβεβαιωμένης αισθητικής εποπτείας. Πέρα από αυτά τα όρια, ο νους μας δεν μπορεί να αναγνωρίζει, να φαντάζεται, να συλλογίζεται. Πώς όμως η -επίσης ασύλληπτη για το νου μας- έννοια του απείρου γινόταν κατανοητή αιώνες πριν ανακαλυφθεί η θεωρία της σχετικότητας; Η κατανόηση της έννοιας του απείρου δεν αφορά στην εμπειρία της πραγματικότητας, αλλά στον τρόπο τακτοποίησης και υπολογισμού των όρων της με βάση τη οργάνωση συγκεκριμένων αισθητικών σημείων που αντιστοιχούν στη λογική γνώση: των αριθμών και των συμβόλων τους. Από τη μαθηματική σύνθεση εξαρτάται η λογική πορεία προς την απόδειξη. Όλοι οι αριθμοί εκφράζονται σύμφωνα με τα κριτήρια που εμείς επιλέγουμε. Μπορούμε ωστόσο να φανταστούμε άπειρους αριθμούς; Η απάντηση είναι όχι. Ο νους μας δεν είναι προγραμματισμένος να αποσαφηνίζει αισθητικά το άπειρο, επομένως δεν μπορεί ούτε να το φαντάζεται. Τότε, εφόσον δεν μπορούμε να φανταζόμαστε το άπειρο και -ως εκ τούτου- να το εκφράζουμε αισθητικά, πώς είναι δυνατό να συζητάμε για αυτό; Το γεγονός ότι δεν έχουμε αισθητική γνώση της του άπειρου, δεν σημαίνει ότι δεν μπορούμε να υποθέσουμε την ύπαρξή του. Επειδή η υπόθεση, ως διασκεπτική ενέργεια, αφορά καθαρά στην εννοιολογική γνώση, έπεται πως ό, τι υποθέτουμε, πρέπει να είμαστε σε θέση να το αποδεικνύουμε ή να το απορρίπτουμε, με βάση τη λογική. Πώς όμως ο θεωρητικός νους, μπορεί να λειτουργήσει κατευθείαν στο επίπεδο της λογικής, χωρίς προηγουμένως να έχει σχηματίσει το αισθητικό περίγραμμα, δηλαδή την μορφή του αποτελέσματος και της πορείας του προς αυτό; Η απάντηση είναι ότι το λογικό επίπεδο του νου μας μπορεί να υποθέσει χωρίς να μορφοποιήσει, εφόσον αντικαταστήσει τις αισθητικές μορφές με σύμβολα, με αισθητικο-λογικές παραστάσεις, που στην σύνθεσή τους μπορούν να περιχαρακώσουν λογικά τα όρια της ιδέας που υποθέτουμε. Οι παραστάσεις αυτές είναι οι αριθμοί και τα σύμβολά τους, ενώ η σύνθεσή τους είναι η μαθηματική πράξη. Είναι προφανές ότι η μαθηματική ανάλυση, εφόσον οδηγεί σε λογικά συμπεράσματα συνιστά γλώσσα, δηλαδή σύμβαση συνεννόησης, η οποία εξαρτάται από την ειδική γνώση των κανόνων της. Και πώς λειτουργεί η αισθητική γνώση στο επίπεδο αυτό; Η μαθηματική υπόθεση δεν περιέχει το προγνωστικό αισθητικό κριτήριο του αποτελέσματός της, επομένως, ουδόλως ενδιαφέρεται για την έκφραση. Η μαθηματική γλώσσα εικονοποιείται και αποτυπώνεται διαμέσου μορφών, η σύνθεση των οποίων γενικεύεται αναφορικά προς έναν συγκεκριμένο σκοπό: εκείνον της απόδειξης. Είναι επομένως, οι αριθμοί και τα μαθηματικά σύμβολα αισθητικά μεταδοτές μορφές, προσανατολισμένες να ολοκληρώνουν την λογική απαίτηση. Και η βούληση δίνει την εντολή στον θεωρητικό νου να περιορίζει κάθε αυθορμητισμό, ώστε οι μαθηματικές μορφές να προσανατολίζονται μόνο προς τον λογικό σκοπό της απόδειξης. Παρόλο λοιπόν που οι αριθμοί και τα μαθηματικά σύμβολα περιέχουν την αισθητική βεβαιότητα που παράγεται από την ενέργεια της απεικόνισής τους, σε καμία περίπτωση δεν αποτυπώνουν αισθητικά την γνώση του μαθηματικού αποτελέσματος. Η διασκεπτική ενέργεια, επομένως, όταν λειτουργεί μαθηματικά, δεν μπορεί να φανταστεί το αποτέλεσμά της, παρά μόνο να το διατυπώσει αριθμητικά. Αυτό συμβαίνει γιατί οι ίδιοι οι αριθμοί, παρόλο που αναφέρονται στην πραγματικότητα, εντούτοις δεν αποτελούν πρωτογενείς μορφές ζώσας εμπειρίας, αλλά δευτερογενείς μορφές συμβάσεων διευθέτησής της, δηλαδή αναπαραστάσεις εμπειριών. Επομένως: δεν μπορούμε να φανταστούμε ένα μαθηματικό αποτέλεσμα, παρά μόνο να οδηγηθούμε λογικά σε αυτό, δεδομένου ότι δεν μπορούμε να έχουμε αισθητική γνώση των μαθηματικών υπολογισμών, αλλά μόνον αισθητική γνώση της εικονικής αναπαράστασής τους και εμπειρία της εφαρμογής των αποτελεσμάτων τους. Για παράδειγμα: όταν σκέφτομαι την πράξη 2 x 2 = 4, κατανοώ τον υπολογισμό, συμπεραίνω λογικά ότι με τον ίδιο τρόπο 4 x 4 = 16 και, κατ’ επέκταση, φαντάζομαι την εφαρμογή της αρχής του πολλαπλασιασμού σε ολόκληρο το φάσμα της εμπειρίας μου· μπορώ μάλιστα λειτουργώντας αντίστροφα, να φανταστώ τη μαθηματική πράξη της διαίρεσης. Παρόλο όμως, που, σε αλληλεπίδραση με τη βούληση μπορώ να προσανατολίσω τη λογική μου στην αποκάλυψη και άλλων μαθηματικών αναλογιών, δεν μπορώ να διαισθανθώ το αποτέλεσμά τους, παρά μόνο να το υπολογίσω, να το συσχετίσω δηλαδή με αντίστοιχες αναλογίες και να το διατυπώσω-περιγράψω με βάση τη μαθηματική απεικόνιση. Το ερώτημα είναι εάν, στον μαθηματικό συλλογισμό περιορίζεται η χρησιμότητα της εκφραστικής δραστηριότητας σε ένα σημείο καθαρά απεικονιστικό, και είναι η βεβαιότητα του συμπεράσματος ό, τι ρυθμίζει τις βουλήσεις των υποκειμένων προς την κατεύθυνση της μεταβολής της πραγματικότητας. Ο νους υποθέτει ένα αποτέλεσμα και πηγαίνει προς αυτό, όχι βάσει μορφών ή εκφράσεων, αλλά βάσει αποδεικτικών κανόνων: οι μαθηματικοί κανόνες, σε αντίθεση με τους κανόνες της λογικής που προϋποθέτουν την αλήθεια του κριτηρίου της αισθητικής εποπτείας, μπορούν να προχωρήσουν σε λογικές συνθέσεις και ανασυνθέσεις, χωρίς να γνωρίζουν ενορατικά την πορεία προς το αποτέλεσμα. Το έλλειμμα της αισθητικής βεβαιότητας όπως είπαμε, αναλαμβάνουν οι αριθμοί και τα μαθηματικά σύμβολα, τα οποία προσλαμβάνονται από το νου ως καθολικά αναγνωρισμένες ποιότητες, ως γλώσσα. Απομακρύνοντας την φιλοσοφία από τον παλιό θεωρητικό μανδύα των κατηγοριών μπορεί, ο καθαρός νους, να θέσει τα θεμέλια για μία νέα βάση, η οποία θα αντέχει στα συμπεράσματα της μαθηματικής σχετικότητας. Μία τέτοια κατεύθυνση θα απομάκρυνε την αισθητική αλλά και την ηθική φιλοσοφία από τον από τον εφιάλτη της αποπραγματοποίησης. Πράγματι λοιπόν, η επιστημονική γνώση μπορεί να οδηγήσει στην παραγωγή λογικών συμπερασμάτων ανεξάρτητα και όχι δίπλα στην αισθητική εποπτεία, όπως μέχρι σήμερα παραδέχεται η φιλοσοφία. Η αισθητική εποπτεία, παρόλο που αποτελεί ανεξάρτητη μορφή γνώσης, δεν μπορεί να δημιουργήσει μορφές πέρα από τα όρια των αισθήσεων, επομένως δεν μπορεί να ακολουθήσει τις επιστημονικές αρχές. Ωστόσο, το ότι η λογική υπερισχύει των αισθήσεων -βάζοντας έτσι ερωτηματικό στα όσα μέχρι σήμερα συζητάμε σε φιλοσοφικό επίπεδο γύρω από την αισθητική εποπτεία- δεν είναι ενδεικτικό του γεγονότος, ότι η φιλοσοφία έχει πάψει πλέον στην ολότητά της, να αποτελεί την θεωρητική μήτρα της επιστήμης. Αρκεί να αναλογιστούμε ότι η απάντηση στο λεγόμενο καρτεσιανό παράδοξο που έχουμε ήδη αναφερθεί, ως σημείο κορύφωσης της διαμάχης μεταξύ μονισμού και δυϊσμού, δόθηκε κυρίως από φιλοσόφους, Γάλλους εγκυκλοπαιδιστές και οι Γερμανούς υλιστές, οι θέσεις των οποίων οδήγησαν σταδιακά στην αποπνευματοποίηση της νόησης. Ήρθε λοιπόν η στιγμή που η φιλοσοφία πρέπει να αναλάβει πρωτοβουλία, επανεκκινώντας τις αρχές της επινοώντας νέες κατηγορίες ή νέους συσχετισμούς κατηγοριών, με βάση τα αδιαπραγμάτευτα πορίσματα της επιστήμης. Υποστηρίζουμε το σημείο αυτό ανατρέχοντας δειγματοληπτικά σε κάποιες εύστοχες παρατηρήσεις επιστημόνων, ο εννοιολογικός προσανατολισμός των οποίων εμπίπτει και στην μελέτη του φάσματος των φιλοσοφικών προοπτικών. Ξεκινάμε με την παραδοχή του βιολόγου-ζωολόγου Nikolaas Tinbergen (1907-1988), ότι η ηθολογία, ως μελέτη της συμπεριφοράς των ζώων και των ανθρώπων, δεν έχει ακόμη αποδείξει ότι η επίδραση του περιβάλλοντος μπορεί να επηρεάσει τις συμπεριφορές πέρα από τα όρια των φυσικών καταβολών μας. Αποφεύγοντας τη θετικιστική προοπτική και ανοίγοντας ένα μονοπάτι συνεργασίας μεταξύ θετικών και ανθρωπιστικών επιστημών, ο Ολλανδός ζωολόγος παραδέχεται ότι, ένα τέτοιο ενδεχόμενο -το οποίο πρέπει να εξεταστεί σε σχέση με την εξελικτική θεωρία- αφορά στους κλάδους της φυσιολογίας, της ψυχολογίας και εν γένει των ανθρωπιστικών επιστημών. Ωστόσο, συμπληρώνουμε εδώ, ότι παρόλες τις γενικές αρχές τους, βιολογία και θετικές επιστήμες δεν μπορούν να εισδύσουν στον πυρήνα της ατομικότητας καθενός. Σε όλα τα βιολογικά είδη, η μελέτη της ατομικής αντίδρασης στα ερεθίσματα του περιβάλλοντος είναι αρκετή ώστε να συναχθούν συμπεράσματα αντιπροσωπευτικά για το σύνολο του είδους. Κάτι τέτοιο όμως δεν ισχύει για τον άνθρωπο, δεδομένου ότι η ατομικότητά του αποτελεί ξεχωριστή, προσωποποιημένη παρουσία, συνειδητά ολοκληρωμένη ψυχική, σωματική και νοητική οντότητα. Έργο δε, της ανθρώπινης ατομικότητας είναι η παραγωγή γνώσεων, με βάση το προσωπικό αισθητήριο και η μετάδοσή της στο περιβάλλον της ομάδας. Το γεγονός ότι η ομάδα μπορεί να αναγνωρίζει την αλήθεια των ατομικών γνώσεων και να θεμελιώνει στην βάση της καθολικές εννοιλογικές αρχές, αποτελεί πάγια φιλοσοφική θέση γύρω από το γεγονός ότι οι συμπεριφορές, δεν προϋπάρχουν του νου, αλλά εξελίσσονται, η δε ομοιότητά τους δεν οφείλεται σε μία ακαθόριστη λογική οντότητα που υφίσταται ανεξάρτητα από την ατομική υπόσταση του προσώπου που σκέπτεται και βούλεται, αλλά εξελίσσεται επιλεκτικά μέσα από συνειδητές διεργασίες επιβιωμάτων και αναβιώσεων. Η θέση τουTinbergen και στην επικαιροποιείται και επαληθεύεται σαράντα περίπου έτη μετά από τον Ζωολόγο Richard Dawkins. Αναφερόμενος κυρίως στο επίπεδο της σχέσης μεταξύ Ηθολογίας και Ανθρωπιστικών Επιστημών ο Dawkins επισημαίνει ήδη από τις πρώτες γραμμές του έργου του Εγωιστικό Γονίδιο, την αναγκαιότητα συνεργασίας μεταξύ των δύο παραπάνω κλάδων, σημειώνοντας ότι οι Θετικές Σχολές των Πανεπιστημίων, δεν καταπιάνονται με τη φιλοσοφική αξία της Ζωολογίας· και αντίστροφα, ότι οι Σχολές των Ανθρωπιστικών Επιστημών δεν αναφέρονται στα συμπεράσματα της σύγχρονης επιστήμης. Ίσως λοιπόν, το γεγονός ότι η μελέτη λογικών συμπερασμάτων σύμφωνα με το εννοιολογικό κριτήριο της επιστήμης, στην εξέλιξή του δημιουργεί μία νέα ανάγκη εξισορρόπησης του προλογικού-αισθητικού και λογικού επιπέδου του νου μας, αρχικά όχι με βάση την κατανόηση των μορφών, αλλά της δημιουργίας ενός κοινωνικο-πολιτισμικού περιβάλλοντος, ικανού να υποδεχτεί απροκατάληπτα και χωρίς πολιτισμικό δέος, τις επιστημονικές αλήθειες. Μπορεί κάτι τέτοιο να καταστεί εφικτό; Εφόσον η ανθρώπινη διάνοια μπορεί να ξεπερνά την εμπειρία της υπολογίζοντας διαστάσεις πέρα από τα όριά της, σημαίνει ότι είναι προγραμματισμένη από τη φύση να λειτουργεί στο επίπεδο αυτό. Και ο νους μας, όντας αρχή που αυτοκαθορίζεται αλλά και εξελίσσεται, αποτελεί το αίτιο των προβλημάτων που θέτει στον εαυτό του. Άλλωστε οι φιλοσοφικές κατηγορίες όπως τις έχουμε κατατάξει σε αισθητική, λογική, ατομική-βουλητική και ηθική, είναι όροι προσαρμοσμένοι στις ανάγκες του φιλοσοφικού συστήματος και όχι το ίδιο το φιλοσοφικό σύστημα. Παρόλο λοιπόν που φαίνονται πεπερασμένες και οικουμενικές, οι λογικές λειτουργίες υπόκεινται στις αρχές της οργάνωσης και δημιουργούν απεριόριστους αριθμούς ειδικών ταξινομήσεων. Ολοκληρώνουμε λοιπόν αφήνοντας ανοικτή την παρακαταθήκη των Tinmbergen και Dawkins και την από κοινού επισήμανσή τους, όσον αφορά στην προσέγγιση της Επιστήμης από την Φιλοσοφία και αντίστροφα. Η επισήμανση-πρόταση αυτή αφορά στην εξέταση του ρόλου των συμπερασμάτων της επιστήμης ως κριτηρίου διαμόρφωσης συμπεριφορών, αλλά και διεύρυνσης των ορίων του νου, σε μία ολότελα διαφορετική βάση από αυτές που έχουν ακολουθηθεί μέχρι σήμερα: στη βάση της δημιουργίας νέων ευκαιριών για φυσική επιλογή. ΒΙΒΛΙΟΓΡΑΦΙΑ 1) Γρηγόρης Γκιζέλης, Το πολιτισμικό σύστημα, ο σημειωτικός και επικοινωνιακός χαρακτήρας του, εκδόσεις Γρηγορόπουλος, Αθήνα, 1980. 2) Benedetto Croce, Estetica come scienza dell’ espressione e linguistica generale, Adelphi, Milano, 2005 (seconda edizione). 3) Dawkins Richard, Το εγωιστικό γονίδιο, μετάφραση-επιμέλεια-εισαγωγή στην ελληνική έκδοση, Μαργαρίτης Λουκάς, Τσουκαλαδάκης Αθανάσιος, φιλολογική επιμέλεια Μπουκάλας Παντελής, εκδόσεις Σύναλμα, Αθήνα, 1988. 4) Hume David, Κείμενα αυτοβιογραφικά, γνωσιολογικά, ηθικά, μετάφραση Μ. Γούναρη, Χ. Μησοπούλου, εισαγωγή-επιμέλεια Μαρία Πουρνάρη, εκδόσεις Εκκρεμές, Αθήνα, 2006. 5) Victor Kraft, Ο κύκλος της Βιέννης και η γέννηση του νεοθετικισμού, εκδόσεις Γνώση, Αθήνα, 1986. 6) Θεοδόσης Πελεγρίνης, Ηθική φιλοσοφία, εκδόσεις Ελληνικά Γράμματα, β΄ έκδοση, Αθήνα, 1997. 7) Θεοδόσης Πελεγρίνης, Οι πέντε εποχές της φιλοσοφίας, εκδόσεις Ελληνικά Γράμματα, β΄έκδοση, Αθήνα, 1997. 8) Nikolaas Tinbergen et al, Ηθολογία, «Επιστημονική Σκέψη 1900-1960», επιμέλεια R. Harré, μετάφραση Δημοσθένης Κούρτοβικ, εκδόσεις Μορφωτικού Ιδρύματος Εθνικής Τράπεζας, Αθήνα, 1982. 9) Windelband W., Heimsoeth H., Εγχειρίδιο της Ιστορίας της Φιλοσοφίας, Β΄ Τόμος. «Η Μεσαιωνική Φιλοσοφία - η φιλοσοφία της Αναγέννησης - η φιλοσοφία του Διαφωτισμού», μετάφραση Ν. Σκουτερόπουλος, Γ΄ ανατύπωση, εκδόσεις Μορφωτικού Ιδρύματος Εθνικής Τράπεζας, Αθήνα, 2003. 10) John Z. Young, Ο εγκέφαλος και οι φιλόσοφοι, Εκδόσεις Κάτοπτρο, Μετάφραση Μυρτώ Αντωνοπούλου, Αθήνα, 1991. (shrink)

GAMETOGÊNESE -/- Emanuel Isaque Cordeiro da Silva Instituto Agronômico de Pernambuco Departamento de Zootecnia – UFRPE Embrapa Semiárido -/- • _____OBJETIVO -/- Os estudantes bem informados, estão a buscando conhecimento a todo momento. O estudante de Veterinária e Zootecnia, sabe que a Reprodução é uma área de primordial importância para sua carreira. Logo, o conhecimento da mesma torna-se indispensável. No primeiro trabalho da série fisiologia reprodutiva dos animais domésticos, foi abordado de forma clara, didática e objetiva os mecanismos de diferenciação (...) sexual dos embriões em desenvolvimento, quais os genes envolvidos nesse processo e tudo mais. Nesse segundo trabalho, a abordagem será teórica, mas também clara, sobre a formação primordial dos gametas femininos e masculinos, através da ovogênese nas fêmeas e a espermatogênese nos machos. Esse trabalho visa levar a importância do processo de formação dos gametas e a produção hormonal das gônadas, bem como o entendimento sobre as interações com o eixo hipotálamo-hipofisário. -/- •____INTRODUÇÃO -/- A reprodução sexual é um processo mediante a qual dois organismos da mesma espécie unem seu material genético para dar lugar a um organismo fixo com combinação única de genes; para isso, cada organismo produz células que contém a metade do material genético característico da espécie. Essas células haploides (1n) são denominadas gametas; ao combinar-se um gameta masculino com um feminino produz-se uma célula diploide (2n) (zigoto ou ovo) a partir da qual se forma o embrião. A grande maioria das espécies com reprodução sexual são anisogâmicas, o que significa que produzem dois tipos de gametas diferentes: os gametas masculinos são microscópios, móveis e produzem-se em grande quantidade, enquanto que os femininos são grandes, imóveis e produzem-se em menor quantidade. O tipo de gameta que um indivíduo produz é o que define seu sexo; sobre os animais o macho é o indivíduo que produz grandes quantidades de espermatozoides e a fêmea produz uma menor quantidade de óvulos, enquanto que nas plantas as gônadas masculinas são as produtoras pólen e as femininas produzem oosferas. Os gametas são diferentes do resto das células do organismo, as quais se chamam células somáticas; essas últimas são diploides porque contém dois pares de cromossomos, um par herdado do pai do indivíduo e o outro da mãe. As células somáticas, ademais, se dividem por mitose, ao qual os cromossomos se duplicam antes de cada divisão celular e cada uma das células filhas recebe um complemento diploide idêntico dos cromossomos, logo todas as células somáticas de um indivíduo possuem o mesmo material genético, embora cada tipo celular expresse diferentes combinações de genes. Em contraponto, os gametas são células haploides porque possuem somente um par de cromossomos e a metade do material genético característico da espécie. Cada um dos cromossomos em um gameta é resultado da recombinação dos genes contidos nos cromossomos paterno e materno do indivíduo que originam o gameta, e cada um destes possuem uma combinação única de genes. Os gametas se formam a partir das células germinais, que são células que em sua origem são diploides e elas de “comprometem” a manter-se como uma linha celular especial que em determinado momento sofrerá o processo de meiose para dar origem aos gametas haploides, sejam óvulos ou espermatozoides segundo o sexo do animal. Como descrito no trabalho sobre a diferenciação sexual, as células germinativas primordiais originam-se no epiblasto do embrião, e migram desde o saco vitelino até colonizar as cristas gonodais, onde, por sua vez, proliferam-se e se organizam junto com as células somáticas da gônada primitiva para formar o testículo ou o ovário. As células germinais masculinas e femininas tem a mesma origem embrionária. As gônadas indiferenciadas em um embrião possuem três tipos celulares: as células que dão origem aos gametas (ovogonia ou espermatogonia), as precursoras de células que nutrem os gametas em desenvolvimento (células da granulosa no ovário; células de Sertoli no testículo) e as precursoras de células que secretam hormônios sexuais (células da teca no ovário; células de Leydig no testículo). As células germinais são as únicas estruturas do organismo que têm a capacidade de dividir-se por meiose sofrendo uma redução no número de seus cromossomos, sendo responsável pela transmissão da carga genética aos descendentes. Em contraste, as células somáticas somente se dividem por mitose. A formação dos gametas compreende fases sequenciais de mitose, meiose e pós-meiose. Esses processos são altamente organizados e necessitam de um preciso e bem coordenado programa de expressão genética. Uma das características importantes da gametogênese é a redução cromossômica, que através da meiose, reduz pela metade o número de cromossomos e produz células distintas entre si, devido a trocas de material genético entre os pares de cromossomos provenientes do pai e da mãe, o que ocorre no processo de “crossing over” durante a primeira fase da meiose. A gametogênese é o processo mediante o qual as células germinais de cada sexo se multiplicam, dividem e diferenciam até formar os gametas. No caso da formação dos gametas masculinos o processo recebe o nome específico de espermatogênese, e para os gametas femininos é denominado como ovogênese. Embora os dois processos alcancem o objetivo comum de produção das células haploides, por onde compartilham algumas características, existem diferenças marcadas entre eles devido a necessidade de produzir um número muito distinto de gametas, de tamanho diferente, e com características de motilidade também distintas. -/- •___ESPERMATOGÊNESE -/- A espermatogênese é o processo mediante o qual se produz os gametas masculinos denominados espermatozoides. Durante a vida fetal as células germinais e as células somáticas do testículo em formação organizam-se em túbulos seminíferos que se derivam dos cordões sexuais primários e conformam a maior parte da medula do testículo. Na etapa fetal cada tubo seminífero é delimitado por uma membrana basal, recoberta na parte interior pelas células precursoras das células de Sertoli (um tipo de células somáticas). No exterior do túbulo localizam-se as células precursoras das células de Leydig ou intersticiais (figura 1), que também são células somáticas. Entre a membrana basal e as células de Sertoli encontram-se algumas células germinais denominadas espermatogonias de reserva A0 (denominadas gonócitos) que serão o único tipo de células germinais presentes no testículo enquanto o animal não alcançar a puberdade. As células de Sertoli estabelecem na região basal uniões oclusoras entre si, formando parte da barreira hemato-testicular. As espermatogonias A0 localizam-se por dentro da membrana basal do túbulo seminífero, embora fora da barreira hemato-testicular. Figura 1: fase neonatal. Nota-se a grande infiltração de tecido intersticial em quase 50% da seção originando que os túbulos sejam pequenos e redondos em sua maioria. O citoplasma e núcleo das células pré-Leydig são notadas claramente por essa ser uma espécie suína onde o tecido intersticial está claramente diferenciado. Hematoxilina-eosina (X 220.5). Fonte: Embrapa. -/- O número de células de Sertoli no testículo depende da influência do hormônio folículo estimulante (FSH) presente durante a vida fetal e as primeiras etapas de vida pós-natal. A população de células de Sertoli ao chegar a puberdade se manterá fixa durante o resto da vida do animal; existe uma relação positiva entre o tamanho e a população de células de Sertoli e a capacidade de produção de espermatozoides do testículo. As células de Sertoli são as únicas células somáticas que estão no epitélio seminífero, e sua função é a nutrição, sustentação e controle endócrino das células germinais. As células de Sertoli participam ativamente no processo de liberação dos espermatozoides para a luz do túbulo. Nesse momento, as células de Sertoli realizam a fagocitose de parte do citoplasma do espermatozoide dos chamados corpos residuais. As células de Sertoli também fagocitam as células germinais que se degeneram no curso normal da espermatogênese. Essas células ainda sintetizam grande quantidade de proteínas, como por exemplo as proteínas ABP (androgen hinding protein), que transportam andrógenos para todo o aparelho reprodutivo, transferrinas, que transportam ferro para a respiração celular das células germinais e também às inibinas, que regulam a liberação de FSH pela hipófise, através de um sistema de retroalimentação (feedback) negativa (figura 2). Figura 2: epitélio seminífero, células de Sertoli (flecha) (400 X). Fonte: Embrapa. -/- Antes da puberdade dos túbulos seminíferos observam-se ao corte como estruturas de diâmetro pequeno, sem luz, e conformados unicamente pelas células de Sertoli e espermatogonias de reserva e rodeados por abundante tecido intersticial, ao que estão presentes as células precursoras das células de Leydig. Ainda antes da puberdade, a diferenciação celular manifesta-se primeiro pela presença de espermatócitos primários, os quais se degeneram em geral na fase de paquíteno, por falta de estimulação hormonal. A partir de que o animal chega a puberdade inicia-se o processo de espermatogênese, que se manterá durante toda a vida do animal, exceto em espécies de animais silvestres muito estacionais, ao qual pode se suspender durante a época não reprodutiva para voltar e ser retomada na época ou estação reprodutiva. Depois da puberdade, os túbulos seminíferos possuem um diâmetro muito maior; em seu interior observa-se um grande número de células germinais de todos os tipos, diferentes estádios de divisão, e em seu lúmen contém líquido e espermatozoides. Ainda sobre o alcancei da puberdade, as espermatogonias começam a dividir-se aceleradamente por mitose, enquanto que no espaço intersticial as células mesenquimais também começam a se diferenciar e a dar origem as células de Leydig (figura 3). A partir dessa etapa as células de Leydig (totalmente diferenciadas) são também evidentes no exterior do túbulo, junto com as células mioides ou peritubulares que o rodeiam o que ao contrair-se são responsáveis por controlar o avanço dos fluidos e as células presentes no lúmen do túbulo. As células mioides estão situadas ao redor do túbulo, e é creditado a elas a promoção da contração e da integridade estrutural do túbulo. Esse tipo celular apenas se diferencia na puberdade pela ação dos andrógenos (figura 4). As interações entre as células de Sertoli e as mioides parecem ter um papel importante na manutenção das funções do testículo. Durante o processo de espermatogênese, as espermatogonias de reserva dividem-se periodicamente e enquanto algumas células fixas permanecem como espermatogonias de reserva, outras proliferam e sofrem uma seção de divisões mitóticas durante as quais se vão diferenciando até formarem espermatócitos primários (espermatocitogênese ou fase de mitose), logo sofrem divisões especiais mediante as quais reduzem seu número de cromossomos (fase de meiose), e ao final trocam de forma para converter-se em espermatozoides (espermatocitogênese) (figura 5). Cada uma dessas etapas da espermato- gênese será descrito detalhadamente adiante, antes é necessário a explicação de algumas características das células de Sertoli e de Leydig que ajudarão a entender seu papel durante a espermatogênese. Figura 3: células de Leydig no espaço intersticial do testículo bovino adulto PAS (400 X). Fonte: Embrapa. -/- Figura 4: o estabelecimento da puberdade pela presença de espermatozoides no túbulo. Hematoxilina-eosina (400 X). Fonte: Embrapa. Figura 5: fases mitóticas das espermatogonias (A0 e B) para formação de um espermatócito primário e as duas fases de meiose que se sucedem antes da espermatogênese. Fonte: ZARCO, 2018. -/- Ao início da espermatocitogênese as uniões oclusoras entre as células de Sertoli se abrem por etapas (como as comportas de um submarino) para permitir a passagem das espermatogonias em direção ao centro do túbulo seminífero sem que se estabeleça uma continuidade entre o exterior e o interior da barreira hemato-testicular. Uma vez ultrapassada essa barreira, as sucessivas gerações de espermatogonias, espermatócitos, espermátides e espermatozoides irão se localizar em direção ao interior do túbulo seminífero, em estreita associação com as células de Sertoli. Em consequência, as células de Sertoli dividem o túbulo seminífero em dois compartimentos; o compartimento basal (debaixo das uniões oclusoras das células de Sertoli), ao qual residem as espermatogonias de reserva, e o compartimento adluminal (em direção ao centro do túbulo), cujos espaços entre as células de Sertoli desenvolvem o resto do processo de espermatogênese (meiose e espermatocitogênese). Esse feito é importante porque durante a vida fetal as únicas células germinais existentes eram as espermatogonias de reserva, pelo que os antígenos expressados por gerações mais avançadas (espermatogonias intermediárias, secundárias, espermátides e espermatozoides) não são reconhecidos como próprios do corpo pelo sistema imunológico. Logo, o anterior implica que deve existir uma barreira entre eles e o sangue para evitar um ataque imunológico. Em todas as etapas da espermatogênese, as células de Sertoli atuam como células de suporte para as células germinais, que sempre permanecem recoberta pela membrana das células de Sertoli. Também atuam como células nutricionais já que proporcionam o meio em que as células germinais se desenvolvem e maturam, assim como as substâncias que regulam e sincronizam as sucessivas divisões e transformações das células germinais. As células de Sertoli produzem hormônios, como estrógenos e inibina que atuam sobre a hipófise para regular a secreção das gonadotropinas que controlam a espermatogênese. As células de Leydig que residem no exterior do túbulo seminífero também são importantes para a espermatogênese: produzem a testosterona que estimula e mantém a espermatogênese, bem como serve como substrato sobre o qual atua como aromatizador das células de Sertoli para transformá-las em estrógenos. Como supracitado, para seu estudo podemos dividir a espermatogênese em três fase: espermatocitogênese, meiose e espermiogênese (figura 6). Agora, serão descritas cada uma dessas etapas. Em algumas espécies, incluindo no homem, os macrófagos representam o segundo tipo celular intersticial mais numeroso no testículo, depois das células de Leydig. Os macrófagos e vários subtipos de linfócitos são identificados nós testículos de ovinos e ratos. Eles estão intimamente associados com as células de Leydig e atuam juntamente na regulação da esteroidogênese. Figura 6: fluxograma da espermatogênese. -/- Espermatocitogênese -/- A espermatocitogênese, também chamada de etapa proliferativa ou de mitose, consiste numa série de divisões mitóticas sofridas pelas células descendentes de uma espermatogonia de reserva. Uma vez que a célula se divide, abandona o estado de reserva e começa um processo de diferenciação. As espermatogonias de reserva (denominadas espermatogonias A0 na rata ou As nos humanos) são células que existem desde a vida fetal e que permanecem mitoticamente inativas durante a infância. Uma vez que alcançam a puberdade começam a dividir-se em intervalos regulares, e as células filhas podem permanecer como espermatogonias de reserva ou abandonar a reserva e ingressar na dita espermatocitogênese. Uma vez abandonada a reserva, as células filhas que vão se formando em cada divisão permanecem unidas por pontes citoplasmáticas, constituindo um clone que se divide sincronicamente. As células que se formam depois de cada divisão continuam sendo espermatogonias, porém cada geração é ligeiramente diferente da anterior. Na rata, por exemplo, as espermatogonias tipo A0 ao dividir-se originam espermatogonias do tipo A1, que em sucessivas divisões formam espermatogonias dos tipos A2, A3 e A4, as quais, por sua vez, sofrem outra mitose para formar espermatogonias intermediárias e uma mais para formar espermatogonias do tipo B. Essas últimas se diferenciam (sem se dividir) em espermatócitos primários, processo em que termina a fase de espermatocitogênese, que literalmente significa processo de geração de espermatócitos. As espermatogonias tipo A0 são a fonte para a contínua produção de gametas. A metade delas se dividem e formam células iguais (as chamadas células tronco) e a outra metade forma as espermatogonias A1, que sofre novas divisões mitóticas e formam os tipos 2, 3 e 4. O tipo A4 sofre mitose para formar a intermediária (A In), que por mitose, forma a tipo B (figura 6). Esses tipos de espermatogonias podem ser identificadas em evoluções histológicas de acordo com sua organização topográfica na membrana basal dos túbulos seminíferos ou mediante seu conteúdo de heterocromatina. Outra maneira de diferenciação se baseia em marcadores moleculares específicos que distinguem as espermatogonias tronco (A0) das demais, com os fins de isolamento, desenvolvimento in vitro e transplante. As tipo B passam por mitose para formarem os espermatócitos primários; estes iniciam a primeira etapa da meiose formando os espermatócitos secundários; na segunda etapa da divisão meiótica, cada espermatócito secundário se divide e formam as chamadas espermátides. Quando o testículo alcança seu desenvolvimento total, a meiose completa-se e as espermátides originadas se convertem em espermatozoides. Um dos maiores sinais característicos desse fenômeno é o alargamento das espermátides e sua migração em direção ao lúmen do túbulo seminífero (figuras 4, 7 e 8). Figura 7: espermatogonias marcadas por imuno-histoquímica, anticorpo monoclonal TGFa (400 x). Figura 8: fases de divisões meióticas (M), espermatócitos em paquíteno (PA) e espermatócitos secundários (ES). -/- Figura 9: estádio posterior a liberação dos espermatozoides na luz do túbulo. Hematoxilina-eosina (400 x). Mediante as seis divisões mitóticas que ocorrem durante a espermatocitogênese se forma potencialmente um clone de 64 espermatócitos primários a partir de cada espermatogonia A que ingressa sobre o processo. Não obstante, algumas células sofrem apoptose em cada uma das etapas do processo, ao qual o número real formado é menor. Em outras espécies produzem-se um transcurso similar de divisões mitóticas sucessivas durante a espermatocitogênese, embora a nomenclatura utilizada possa ser distinta, por exemplo nos bovinos as duas últimas divisões mitóticas dão origem as espermatogonias de tipo B1 e B2. -/- Meiose -/- Uma vez que as espermatogonias B se diferenciam em espermatócitos primários, esses iniciam a etapa de meiose, com uma nova divisão; desta vez a divisão é do tipo meiótica. Ao completar-se a primeira divisão meiótica (meiose I) se obtém os espermató-citos secundários, que ao sofrer a segunda divisão meiótica (meiose II) dão origem as espermátides. Vale salientar que a meiose é o processo mediante o qual reduz-se a metade do número de cromossomos, pelo que as espermátides que se obtém são células haploides (1n). Os espermatócitos secundários que se formam depois da primeira divisão meiótica contém a metade do número normal de cromossomos, porém a mesma quantidade de DNA já que cada cromossomo é duplo. As espermátides formadas na conclusão da segunda divisão meiótica (figura 7), por sua vez, contém a metade dos cromossomos, e esse já não são duplos, já que se trata de células 1n. Também deve-se enfatizar que durante a meiose é relevante o entrecruzamento dos cromossomos homólogos, pelo que cada espermátide possui uma combinação única e diferente de genes paternos e maternos. Outro ponto que deve ser levado em consideração é que cada espermátide somente possui um cromossomo sexual; a metade das espermátides contém o cromossomo X herdado da mãe do macho que está levando a cabo a espermatogênese e a outra metade contém o cromossomo Y herdado de seu pai. Para cada espermatócito primário que entra no processo de meiose obtém-se cerca de quatro espermátides, pelo qual ao ser completada a meiose potencialmente se poderiam formar até 256 espermátides por cada espermatogonia que abandona a reserva e ingressa na espermatocitogênese. -/- Espermiogênese -/- Durante a espermiogênese, também chamada de fase de diferenciação, as esper-mátides sofrem, sem se dividir, uma metamorfose que as transforma em espermatozoides, os quais finalmente são liberados das células de Sertoli em direção ao lúmen do túbulo seminífero. A espermiogênese é um processo complicado e longo já que a espermátide deve sofrer complexas trocas nucleares, citoplasmáticas e morfológicas que resultam na forma-ção dos espermatozoides. Algumas dessas mudanças incluem a condensação do material nuclear para formação de um núcleo plano e denso, a eliminação do citoplasma para a constituição de uma célula pequena, a formação de uma estrutura especializada denomi-nada acrossomo ou tampa cefálica, e a formação do pescoço e da cauda (flagelo) do esper-matozoide, do que depende a sua motilidade. Durante a maior parte da espermiogênese, as espermátides se mantém com uma estreita associação com as células de Sertoli; logo, chega-se a observar, então, flagelos que se projetam em direção a luz do túbulo que pare-cem sair das células de Sertoli, sendo na realidade os flagelos dos espermatozoides que ainda não tinham sido liberados pelo lúmen. Ao liberar os espermatozoides em direção a luz do túbulo, as células de Sertoli realizam a fagocitose de parte do citoplasma dos espermatozoides (corpos residuais). Também fagocitam os restos de todas as células germinais que sofrem apoptose ou degeneram-se durante a espermatogênese. Credita-se que ao realizar essas funções as células de Sertoli podem fazer uma monitoração eficiente da espermatogênese, o que lhes permitiria emitir sinais para colaborar na regulação desse processo em nível gonodal e a nível sistêmico através da secreção de hormônios como a inibina e o estradiol. Além da inibina e activina, as células de Sertoli sintetizam outras proteínas, como a ABP (proteína ligadora de andrógenos) que serve como uma molécula de transporte de andrógenos dentro dos túbulos seminíferos, ductos deferentes e epidídimo, ou a transfer-rina, que transporta o ferro necessário para a respiração celular. -/- Resultados da espermatogênese -/- O resultado da espermatogênese não significa apenas uma simples multiplicação das células germinais (até 256 espermatozoides a partir de cada espermatogonia A1), senão que através dela são produzidos gametas haploides pequenos, móveis e com grande diversidade genética entre eles, ao mesmo tempo que se mantêm uma reversa de células mãe (espermatogonias A0) a partir das quais se poderiam originar novos ciclos de esper-matogênese durante o resto da vida do animal. -/- Controle hormonal da espermatogênese -/- Como mencionado, o FSH reproduz um importante papel para o estabelecimento das células de Sertoli durante a vida fetal e início da vida pós-natal. O começo da esper-matogênese também é estimulado pelo FSH, que atua sobre as células de Sertoli para estimular sua função e a ativação de sinais dessas células em direção as células germinais, incluindo-as a abandonar a reserva e ingressar na espermatogênese. O FSH, assim mesmo, estimula a mitose durante o resto da espermatogênese e aumenta a eficiência do processo, já que reduz a apoptose e a degeneração de espermatogonias intermediárias e do tipo B. O FSH também estimula as células de Sertoli para produzirem inibina e ABP. Uma vez iniciada a espermatogênese somente requerem níveis baixos de FSH para se mantê-la. As células de Sertoli também devem ser estimuladas pela testosterona para funcio-nar de maneira adequada; se requer também do LH hipofisário: hormônio que estimula as células de Leydig para produzir testosterona. Por sua vez, a secreção de LH e FSH é regulada pelo GnRH hipotalâmico: esse neurohormônio também faz parte do mecanismo de regulação da espermatogênese. A espermatogênese também é modulada em nível local mediante a produção de determinados fatores e interações entre as células. Dentro dos fatores locais podemos mencionar o fator de crescimento parecido com a insulina 1 (IGF-1), o fator de crescimen-to transformante beta (TGF- β), activina, ocitocina e diversas citocinas. Entre as intera-ções celulares existem tanto uniões de comunicação entre as células de Sertoli e as células germinais, como pontes citoplasmáticas entre todas as células germinais que formam o clone de células descendentes de uma espermatogonia A1. Uma vez que as células de Sertoli iniciam sua função na puberdade é possível manter experimentalmente a espermatogênese somente com testosterona, sem ser requeri-dos nenhum outro hormônio. A quantidade de espermatozoides produzidos, no entanto, é maior quando há presença do FSH. Abaixo do estímulo do FSH as células de Sertoli produzem estradiol e inibina, hormônios que geram uma retroalimentação sobre o eixo hipotálamo-hipofisário para a regulação da secreção de gonadotropinas. Em particular, a inibina reduz a secreção de FSH, pelo qual é factível que sirva como um sinal que evite uma excessiva estimulação as células de Sertoli. -/- Ciclo do epitélio seminífero -/- Em cada espécie as espermatogonias de reserva iniciam um novo processo de divi-sões celulares em intervalos fixos: a casa 14 dias no touro; 12 dias no garanhão e a cada 9 dias no cachaço (reprodutor suíno). A nova geração de células que começam a proliferar sobre a base do tubo deslocam-se em direção ao centro do túbulo a geração anterior, que por sua vez deslocam-se as gerações anteriores. Devido as mudanças que vão sofrendo cada geração celular se ajustam a tempos característicos de cada etapa, já que rodas as células em uma determinada seção do túbulo estão sincronizadas entre si pelas células de Sertoli; em cada espécie somente é possível encontrar um certo número de combinações celulares: 14 diferentes combinações no caso da rata, 8 no touro e 6 no ser humano. A sucessão de possíveis combinações até regressar a primeira combinação se conhece como o ciclo do epitélio seminífero. Na maioria das espécies os espermatozoides que são libera-dos em direção a luz do túbulo provém das células que entraram no processo de esperma-togênese quatro gerações antes que a geração que está ingressando nesse momento, pelo que a espermatogênese no touro dura ao redor de 60 dias e um pouco menos em outras espécies domésticas. Significa que os efeitos negativos das alterações na espermatogêne-se podem estar presentes até dois meses depois de que se produziram essas alterações. Como supracitado, geralmente se observa a mesma combinação celular em toda a área de uma determinada secção transversal do túbulo seminífero. No entanto, se fizermos uma série de secções, observa-se que ao longo do túbulo há uma sucessão ordenada de combinações (a primeira em uma determinada secção; a segunda combinação na seguinte secção, e assim sucessivamente em secções subsequentes até regressar a primeira combi-nação. Teremos, então, que ao início da divisão das espermatogonias A1 se produz de forma sincronizada em uma secção do túbulo, e vai-se transmitindo como uma onda peristáltica as secções adjacentes. Esse processo é denominado como onda do epitélio seminífero e graças à esse túbulo seminífero sempre tem secções em todas as etapas da espermatogênese, com o que se alcança uma produção constante de espermatozoides. -/- Alterações da espermatogênese -/- Nas espécies estacionais a espermatogênese, como já mencionado, pode reduzir-se ou inclusive suspender sua atividade fisiológica durante a época não reprodutiva dessas espécimes, porém esse processo fisiológico não pode ser considerado como uma altera-ção. No entanto, a espermatogênese só pode ser alterada pelas enfermidades ou por fatores externos. A principal causa de alterações na espermatogênese é o aumento da temperatura testicular. Por isso, os testículos são localizados na saco escrotal e são “caídos” para fora do corpo como pode-se observar nos bovinos, caprinos, ovinos, caninos e no próprio homem. A temperatura testicular deve estar cerca de 2 a 6 °C abaixo da temperatura corporal normal. As células germinais masculinas são sensíveis ao calor, pelo qual na maioria dos mamíferos os testículos se encontram fora da cavidade abdominal e existe um sofisticado sistema de termorregulação para mantê-los a uma temperatura menor que a corporal. Se a temperatura corporal for elevada ou se os testículos permanecerem na cavidade abdominal, ou ainda se os sistemas termorreguladores do testículo sejam afetados por fatores inflamatórios como edema ou falta de mobilidade testicular dentro do escroto, a temperatura do tecido testicular aumentará e a espermatogênese sofrerá alterações proporcionais ao excesso de temperatura e a duração da elevação. A espermatogênese também pode ser afetada pela exposição a hormônios ou a outras substâncias. É possível que a causa mais comum (sobretudo no homem) seja o uso de esteroides anabólicos, que elevam a concentração de andrógenos na circulação, provo-cando um feedback negativo sobre a secreção de gonadotropinas. Ao deixar de estimular-se o testículo pelas gonadotropinas, este deixará de produzir testosterona, e as concentra-ções de andrógeno exógeno nunca alcançará as altíssimas concentrações de testosterona que normalmente estão presentes a nível do tecido testicular por ser o local onde se produz o hormônio. Também se supõe que diversas substâncias com propriedades estrogênicas derivadas de processos industriais (indústria dos plásticos, hidrocarbonetos etc.) e presentes no ambiente (fatores xenobióticos) podem ser responsáveis pelas alterações na espermatogênese em diversas espécies, entre as quais se inclui o ser humano. -/- • OVOGÊNESE E FOLICULOGÊNESE -/- A ovogênese é o processo seguido pelas células germinais da fêmea para a forma-ção dos óvulos, que são células haploides. Durante a vida fetal as células germinais proliferam-se no ovário por mitose, formando um grande número de ovogonias, algumas das quais se diferenciam em ovócitos primários que iniciam sua primeira divisão meiótica para deter-se na prófase da divisão. Somente alguns desses ovócitos primários retornarão e concluirão a primeira divisão meiótica em algum momento da vida adulta do animal, dando origem a um ovócito secundário e a um corpo polar. O ovócito secundário inicia a sua segunda divisão meiótica, a qual volta a ficar suspensa até receber um estímulo apropriado, já que somente os ovócitos secundários que são ovulados e penetrados por um espermatozoide retornam e concluem a segunda divisão meiótica, dando origem a um óvulo (figura 10). O processo de ovogênese é realizado dentro dos folículos ovarianos, que também tem que sofrer um longo transcurso de desenvolvimento e diferenciação denominado foliculogênese pelo que a ovogênese como tal realiza-se dentro do marco desse último processo. Por essa razão, na seguinte seção descreverei tanto a ovogênese como a folicu-logênese, e a relação que existe entre ambos. Figura 10: representação da ovogênese. Na etapa de proliferação, as células germinais se diferen-ciam por mitose. A meiose I se caracteriza por uma prófase prolongada, ocorrendo a duplicação do DNA. Nas duas divisões, que ocorrem antes da ovulação e depois da fertilização, a quantidade de DNA é reduzida a 1n, com o fim de que a fusão dos pronúcles (singamia) pós-fertilização, seja gerado um zigoto com um número de cromossomos de 2n (diploide). -/- Geração de ovócitos primários e folículos primordiais Tanto a ovogênese como a foliculogênese iniciam-se durante a vida fetal, quando as células germinais primordiais provenientes do saco vitelino colonizam a gônada primitiva e, junto com as células somáticas z organizam-se para a formação dos cordões sexuais secundários, que se desenvolvem principalmente no córtex do ovário. Nesse período, as células germinais que colonizaram o ovário sofrem até 30 divisões mitóticas, proliferando-se até formar milhares ou milhões de ovogonias, que inicialmente formam “ninhos” constituídos cada um deles por um clone de várias ovogonias que descendem da mesma célula precursora e que se mantêm unidas por pontes citoplasmáticas, sincronizan-do suas divisões mitóticas. Nessa etapa alcança-se a máxima população de células germinais no ovário, que antes de nascer se reduzirá drasticamente por apoptose. No ovário do feto humano chegam a haver até sete milhões de células germinais que ao nascimento se reduzem a dois milhões. Os ovários fetais do bovino, de maneira análoga, chegam a ter até 2.100.000 células germinais, que ao nascimento reduzem para 130.000 aproximadamente. A redução no número de ovogonias produz-se ao mesmo tempo que essas células, que vêm dividindo-se por mitose e estão agrupadas em ninhos, iniciam sua primeira divisão meiótica para se transformarem em ovócitos primários: células germinais que se encontram em uma etapa de suspensão (diplóteno) da prófase da primeira divisão meiótica. Nesse período produz-se uma grande proporção de células germinais; as células somáticas dos cordões sexuais, por sua vez, emitem projeções citoplasmáticas que separam a isolam os ovócitos primários sobreviventes, ficando cada um deles rodeados por uma capa de células aplanadas da (pré) granulosa. Ao mesmo tempo em que se forma uma membrana basal entre as células da granulosa e o tecido intersticial do ovário. Ao ovócito primário rodeado de uma capa de células da (pré) granulosa aplanadas e delimita-das por uma membrana basal denomina-se de folículo primordial (figura 11). Nas vacas os folículos primordiais bem formados já estão presentes nos ovários a partir do dia 90 da gestação. A maioria dos folículos primordiais com os que nasce uma fêmea se manterão inativos durante um longo tempo; muitos deles durante toda a vida do animal. Nos folículos primordiais inativos tanto os ovócitos primários como as células da granulosa conservam sua forma original e mantém um metabolismo reduzido estritamente ao mínimo necessário para manter-se viáveis. Por essa razão, ao realizar um corte histológico de qualquer ovário as estruturas mais numerosas que se observam serão os folículos primordiais. No entanto, cada dia da vida de um animal, inclusive desde a vida fetal, um certo número de folículos primordiais reiniciam seu desenvolvimento, e a partir desse momento um folículo exclusivamente pode ter dois destinos: o primeiro, prosseguir seu desenvolvi-mento até chegar a ovular, e o segundo (que é muito mais frequente) encontrar em algum momento condições inadequadas que fazem fronteira com ele para parar seu desenvolvi-mento, levando-o a sofrer atresia e degenerar até desaparecer do ovário. Figura 11: sequência da foliculogênese apresentando as diferentes estruturas que podemos encontrar em cada fase. Fonte: ZARCO, 2018. Culminação da ovogênese A ovogênese somente se completará quando um ovócito primário reinicia a meio-se; completa sua primeira divisão meiótica para formar um ovócito secundário e um primeiro corpo polar e, quando, finalmente sofrer uma segunda divisão meiótica para formar um óvulo e um segundo corpo polar. Os óvulos são as células 1n que constituem os gametas femininos, pouco numerosos, grandes e imóveis. A grande maioria dos ovóci-tos primários, como veremos mais adiante, nunca retomam a meiose e, em consequência, não chegam a formar ovócitos secundários, e muitos dos ovócitos secundários tampouco sofrem uma segunda divisão meiótica, pelo que não chegam a formar os óvulos. Ao longo da vida de uma fêmea, na maioria das espécies, menos de 0,1% dos ovócitos primários (um a cada mil) chega a terminar a ovogênese, dando origem a um óvulo. O supracitado deve-se a que a ovogênese somente pode retomar-se e ser completa-da em ovócitos primários que se encontram dentro dos folículos primordiais que (uma vez ativados) vão alcançando diversas etapas de seu desenvolvimento em momentos precisos aos que encontram as condições ideais de oxigenação, nutrição, vascularização e exposição a fatores parácrinos e a exposição a concentrações de hormônios que se requerem para que o folículo continue em cada etapa de seu desenvolvimento com o processo de foliculogênese até chegar a ovular. Qualquer folículo que não esteja nessas condições ao longo do desenvolvimento sofrerá degeneração e atresia, pelo que o ovócito primário em seu interior nunca chegará ao ponto em que pode retomar a primeira divisão meiótica. No que resta da presente seção revisaremos o processo de foliculogênese em cujo marco se desenvolve a ovogênese; havemos que tomar de conta que essa última se limita ao que ocorre nas células germinais (ovogonia, ovócito primário, secundário e óvulo), pelo qual depende intimamente do desenvolvimento do folículo de que essas células formam parte. Em um princípio a ativação do folículo primordial e o desenvolvimento folicular são independentes das gonadotropinas: não se conhecem os mecanismos precisos median-te os quais um folículo primordial se ativa e reinicia seu desenvolvimento, nem como se decide quais folículos, dentre as dezenas de milhares de ou centenas de milhares presentes em um ovário se reativarão em um dia em particular. A reativação trata-se de uma liberação de influência de fatores inibidores, já que os folículos primordiais se reativam espontaneamente quando cultivados in vitro, isolados do resto do tecido ovariano. Uma vez que um folículo primordial se ativa, inicia-se um longo processo de desenvolvimento que somente depois de vários meses (ao redor de cinco meses no caso dos bovinos) o levará a um estádio em que seu desenvolvimento posterior requer a presença das gonado-tropinas; daí que se diz que as primeiras etapas do desenvolvimento são independentes das gonadotropinas. Durante a fase independente de gonadotropinas, um folículo primordial que tenha sido ativado e tenha começado a crescer; passará primeiro para a etapa de folículo primá-rio, caracterizada por conter um ovócito primário que está rodeado, por sua vez, por uma capa de células da granulosa, que não são planas, e sim cúbicas. Depois, se o folículo continuar crescendo se transformará em um folículo secundário, ao qual as células da granulosa começam a proliferar (aumentando em número) e se organizam em duas ou mais capas que rodeiam o ovócito primário. Entre o ovócito e as células da granulosa que o rodeiam se forma nesta uma zona pelúcida; ainda assim o ovócito mantém contato direto com essas células, mediante o estabelecimento de pontes citoplasmáticas que atravessam a zona pelúcida. Através dessas pontes citoplasmáticas as células da granulosa podem passar nutrientes e informação ao ovócito primário. O volume e o diâmetro do ovócito primário aumentam ao mesmo tempo que as células da granulosa proliferam-se, para incrementar as capas ao redor do ovócito. De maneira gradual o citoplasma do ovócito primário aumenta até 50 vezes seu volume e a proliferação das células continua. Esses folículos que possuem cada vez mais células e portanto mais capas de células da granulosa se denominam folículos secundários. Para evitar confusões, há a necessidade de nomen-clatura ao qual o folículo vá mudando de nome de primordial a primário e logo, de secun-dário, a terciário, por sua vez, o ovócito que encontra-se em seu interior, a todo momento, segue sendo um ovócito primário. Durante a etapa dependente de gonadotropinas, os folículos secundários começam a formar um espaço cheio de líquido, o antro folicular, desse modo se convertem em folí-culos terciários. Com a utilização de outra nomenclatura, a formação do antro marca a transição entre folículos pré-antrais (sem antro) e folículos antrais (com antro). Em algum momento dessa transição entre folículo secundário e terciário, também aparece a depen-dência de folículos em direção as gonadotropinas, pelo qual somente podem seguir crescendo na presença do hormônio luteinizante (LH) e do hormônio folículo estimulante (FSH). Nos bovinos e em outras espécies (para seu estudo), os folículos antrais são dividi-dos em pequenos, médios e grandes. Embora todos eles possuam um antro folicular, dependendo do seu grau de desenvolvimento requerem diferentes concentrações de gona-dotropinas para continuar o crescimento. Os folículos antrais mais pequenos somente re-querem concentrações baixas de LH e FSH, pelo qual podem continuar crescendo em qualquer momento do ciclo estral inclusive em animais que não estão ciclando (fêmeas em anestro pré-puberal, gestacional, lactacional, estacional). Nas etapas posteriores os folículos antrais requerem primeiro concentrações elevadas de FSH, e nas etapas finais somente podem continuar crescendo na presença de pulsos frequentes de LH, pelo qual somente os folículos que encontram-se sob concentrações apropriadas desses hormônios podem seguir crescendo. Por essa razão, nos animais que se encontram em anestro de qualquer tipo somente é possível encontrar folículos antrais pequenos ou médios, segundo a espécie, e nos animais que se encontram ciclando (estro) o maior tamanho folicular encontrado em um determinado dia do ciclo dependerá das concentrações de FSH e LH presentes nesse momento e nos dias anteriores. Um folículo que chega ao estado máximo de desenvolvimento, conhecido como folículo pré-ovulatório, ao final, somente chegará a ovular se for exposto a um pico pré-ovulatório de LH. Como supracitado, cada dia na vida de uma fêmea inicia seu desenvolvimento um certo número de folículos; a grande maioria sofrem atresia, mas depois da puberdade em cada dia do ciclo estral um ou vários folículos vão encontrando ao longo do seu desenvol-vimento concentrações hormonais que lhes permite chegar na etapa de folículo pré-ovula-tório. Somente nestes folículos, e como consequência de um pico pré-ovulatório de LH, se reinicia e completa-se a primeira divisão meiótica do ovócito primário, produzindo duas células distintas. Uma delas é o ovócito secundário, que retém praticamente todo o citoplasma. Contém, assim mesmo, em seu núcleo um par de cromossomos duplos, a outra é o primeiro corpo polar, que é exclusivamente um núcleo com uma quantidade mínima de citoplasma. Na maioria das espécies ovula-se um ovócito secundário que se encontra, então, suspendido na segunda divisão meiótica. Esta segunda divisão meiótica somente reinicia-rá e completarar-se uma vez que o espermatozoide começa a penetrar sob o ovócito secundário. Ao concluir-se a divisão se forma o segundo corpo polar e completa-se a ovogênese com o qual se obtém o óvulo, célula 1n que constitui o gameta feminino. No entanto, o óvulo existe pouco tempo como tal, já que em poucos minutos/horas (depen-dendo da espécie) se produzirá a fusão do núcleo do mesmo (pró-núcleo feminino) com o do espermatozoide (pró-núcleo masculino), com o qual se completa a fertilização e se forma um novo indivíduo (o ovo ou zigoto). -/- Ondas foliculares -/- Como mencionado supra, todos os dias um determinado número de folículos pri-mordiais se ativam e começam a crescer, os quais crescem em um ritmo característico em cada espécie. Isso provoca que em qualquer momento existam nos ovários folículos pri-mordiais (que começam a crescer em alguns dias ou semanas), assim como folículos secundários em diversas etapas do desenvolvimento, os quais iniciaram seu desenvolvi-mento em semanas ou inclusive meses (segundo o grau de desenvolvimento atual). Também em qualquer momento poderá haver folículos antrais nas etapas iniciais de seu desenvolvimento (com antros que já se podem detectar em cortes histológicos mas não são visíveis macroscopicamente). Todos esses folículos chegaram até seu estado de de-senvolvimento atual (primário, secundário ou antral pequeno), independente da etapa do ciclo estral em que sejam observados ou encontrados. Nos bovinos, os folículos que chegam ao início da etapa antral iniciaram seu desenvolvimento cinco meses antes, e todavia requerem ao redor de 42 dias para chegar ao estado pré-ovulatório. Para continuar seu desenvolvimento, os folículos antrais pequenos devem encon-trar concentrações altas de FSH, que os estimulam para prosseguir o crescimento. Cada vez que se produz uma elevação nas concentrações de FSH, esse hormônio estimula o desenvolvimento de um grupo de folículos antrais pequenos, que começaram a crescer muito tempo antes e que o dia da elevação de FSH tenha alcançado o grau de desenvolvi-mento preciso para responder com eficiência a este hormônio, o qual atuará através de seus receptores nas células da granulosa para estimular a produção de estradiol, a secreção de inibina, a produção de líquido folicular e a proliferação das células da granulosa. Um grupo de folículos antrais pequenos é assim recrutado pelo FSH para acelerar seu cresci-mento e aumentar sua produção de estradiol e inibina (figura 12). Mediante um seguimento ultrassonográfico dos ovários é possível identificar pou-cos dias depois um certo número de folículos, que por haver sido recrutados começam um período de crescimento acelerado. Durante alguns dias vários folículos crescem juntos, porém depois um deles é selecionado para continuar crescendo, enquanto que o restante do grupo deixam de fazê-lo e terminam sofrendo atresia. Através da ultrassom é possível identificar o folículo selecionado, agora chamado folículo domi-nante, já que sua trajetória de crescimento sofre um desvio com respeito a seguida pelo restante do grupo. Os folículos que não foram selecionados deixam de crescer e sofrem atresia já que deixam de possuir o suporte gonadotrópico de FSH, uma vez que as concentrações desse hormônio são suprimidos pela inibina e o estradiol produzidos pelo conjunto de folículos que conformam a onda folicular (figura 12), porém o folículo mais desenvolvido do grupo se converterá em dominante. A inibina atua diretamente a nível hipofisário para reduzir a secreção de FSH. Figura 12: onda folicular e relação dos níveis de FSH, estradiol e LH. Fonte: ZARCO, 2018. -/- Figura 13: Recrutamento, seleção e dominação folicular na espécie ovina e influência do FSH e LH nas fases. Fonte: SILVA, E. I. C. da, 2019. -/- A razão pela qual o folículo dominante é capaz de continuar seu desenvolvimento apesar da baixa nas concentrações de FSH é que o folículo é o único que alcançou o grau de progresso necessário para que apareçam os receptores para LH em suas células da granulosa. Esse processo permite ao folículo dominante ser estimulado pela LH, e que requeira baixas concentrações de FSH para manter seu desenvolvimento. A secreção de LH em forma de pulsos de baixa frequência (um pulso a cada quatro a seis horas), característica da fase lútea do ciclo estral; é suficiente para permitir que um folículo dominante continue crescendo por mais dias depois da sua seleção e que mais tarde mantenha-se viável durante alguns dias embora não aumentem de tamanho. Contu-do, se durante o período viável desse folículo não seja finalizada a fase lútea e não diminuam as concentrações de progesterona, o folículo terminará sofrendo atresia devido a exigência de um padrão de secreção acelerada de LH (aproximadamente um pulso por hora) durante o desenvolvimento pré-ovulatório, que somente pode ser produzido com a ausência da progesterona. Uma vez que um folículo dominante sofre atresia deixa de produzir inibina, pelo qual as concentrações de FSH podem elevar-se novamente para iniciar o recrutamento de outro grupo de folículos a partir da qual se origina uma nova onda folicular. Durante o ciclo estral de uma vaca podem gerar-se dois ou três ondas foliculares; somente em raros casos quatro. A etapa de dominância folicular da primeira onda na grande maioria dos casos não coincide com a regressão do corpo lúteo, pelo qual o primei-ro folículo dominante quase invariavelmente termina em atresia. Em algumas vacas o fo-lículo dominante da segunda onda ainda está viável quando se produz a regressão do corpo lúteo e acelera-se a secreção de LH, pelo qual esse segundo folículo dominante se converte em folículo pré-ovulatório e, ao final ovula. Em outros animais o segundo folícu-lo dominante também perde a sua viabilidade antes da regressão do corpo lúteo, por onde nesses animais se inicia uma terceira onda folicular, da qual surge o folículo que finalmen-te ovulará depois de produzir-se a regressão do corpo lúteo. Sem importar a onda em que se origine, uma vez que um folículo dominante é ex-posto a alta frequência de secreção de LH que se produz depois da regressão do corpo lúteo, aumenta ainda mais sua secreção de estradiol até que as altas concentrações desse hormônio comecem a exercer um feedback positivo para a secreção do LH. Isso provoca-rá a aceleração da frequência de secreção do LH até que os pulsos são tão frequentes que começam a ficar por cima e produzir-se o pico pré-ovulatório de LH, que é responsável pela realização da ovulação e a maturação final do ovócito. -/- •___DIFERENÇAS ENTRE ESPERMATOGÊNESE E OVOGÊNESE -/- Enquanto que na fêmea a ovogênese inicia-se durante a vida fetal, no macho a es-permatogênese começa na puberdade. Na fêmea, a partir de um ovócito primário se origi-na um óvulo; no macho, de um espermatócito primário se produzem, teoricamente, quatro espermatozoides. Outra característica interessante é que enquanto a fêmea já conta desde o nasci-mento com todos os ovócitos que necessitará na vida adulta, o macho necessitará chegar a puberdade para iniciar o desenvolvimento das células sexuais, já que ao nascer somente possui gonócitos precursores das células germinais, células de Sertoli e intersticiais. Na vida adulta de uma fêmea, o número de células germinais desaparece paulati-namente. Uma vez iniciada a espermatogênese no macho, a cada ciclo do epitélio seminí-fero as células germinais são renovadas mantendo a provisão para toda a vida reprodutiva. Na fêmea, a meiose sofre duas interrupções em seu transcurso, e no macho é ininterrupta. Figura 14: representação em diagramação comparativa do desenvolvimento da gametogênese. -/- Principais pontos abordados sobre as diferenças entre a gametogênese masculina e feminina: ❙ Na ovogênese a meiose contêm-se em duas ocasiões esperando acontecimentos externos para prosseguir. Já na espermatogênese não existe a suspensão da meiose. ❙ A espermatogênese é um processo contínuo, enquanto que a ovogênese pode completar exclusivamente um óvulo em cada ciclo estral; já que só pode ser completada por mais de um nas espécies que ovulam vários ovócitos no caso das porcas, cadelas, gatas etc. ❙ Na espermatogênese existem células de reserva que permitem a continuação du-rante toda a vida, enquanto que na ovogênese o número de ovócitos primários é limitado. A fêmea somente conta com os que nasceu, e eles não se dividem. ❙ Na espermatogênese obtém-se até 256 espermatozoides para cada espermatogo-nia que inicia o processo, enquanto que na ovogênese somente se obtém um óvulo a partir de cada ovócito primário. ❙ Durante a espermatogênese se produz uma metamorfose que transforma as es-permátides em espermatozoides. Na ovogênese não ocorre um processo análogo. ❙ Na espermatogênese, durante a meiose produzem-se quatro espermátides a partir de cada espermatócito primário. Na ovogênese se produz somente um óvulo a partir de cada ovócito primário; produz, ademais, dois corpos polares. ❙ Todos os óvulos que se produzem durante a ovogênese contém um cromossomo X, enquanto que a metade dos espermatozoides possuem um cromossomo Y e a outra metade um cromossomo X. ❙ Na espermatogênese produzem-se centenas ou dezenas de milhões de esperma-tozoides por dia, enquanto que na ovogênese se produz um ou alguns óvulos a cada ciclo estral. ❙ A espermatogênese produz gametas macroscópicos e com motilidade própria, enquanto que a ovogênese produz gametas grandes e imóveis. -/- REFERÊNCIAS BIBLIOGRÁFICAS -/- ABDEL-RAOUF, Mohammed et al. The postnatal development of the reproductive organs in bullswith special reference to puberty.(Including growth of the hypophysis and the adrenals). Acta endocrinologica, n. Suppl No. 49, 1960. ADONA, Paulo Roberto et al. Ovogênese e foliculogênese em mamíferos. Journal of Health Sciences, v. 15, n. 3, 2013. AERTS, J. M. J.; BOLS, P. E. J. Ovarian follicular dynamics: a review with emphasis on the bovine species. Part I: Folliculogenesis and pre‐antral follicle development. Reproduction in domestic animals, v. 45, n. 1, p. 171-179, 2010. AERTS, J. M. J.; BOLS, P. E. J. Ovarian follicular dynamics. A review with emphasis on the bovine species. Part II: Antral development, exogenous influence and future prospects. Reproduction in domestic animals, v. 45, n. 1, p. 180-187, 2010. ALBERTINI, David F.; CARABATSOS, Mary Jo. Comparative aspects of meiotic cell cycle control in mammals. Journal of molecular medicine, v. 76, n. 12, p. 795-799, 1998. AUSTIN, Colin Russell; SHORT, R. Reproduction in mammals. Cambridge, 1972. BAKER, T. G. Oogenesis and ovulation. In. Reproduction in Mammals I Germ Cells and Fertilization, p. 29-30, 1972. BEARDEN, Henry Joe et al. Reproducción animal aplicada. México: Manual Moderno, 1982. BIGGERS, John D.; SCHUETZ, Allen W. Oogenesis. University Park Press, 1972. BINELLI, Mario; MURPHY, Bruce D. Coordinated regulation of follicle development by germ and somatic cells. Reproduction, Fertility and Development, v. 22, n. 1, p. 1-12, 2009. CHIARINI-GARCIA, Helio; RUSSELL, Lonnie D. High-resolution light microscopic characterization of mouse spermatogonia. Biology of reproduction, v. 65, n. 4, p. 1170-1178, 2001. CHOUDARY, J. B.; GIER, H. T.; MARION, G. B. Cyclic changes in bovine vesicular follicles. Journal of animal science, v. 27, n. 2, p. 468-471, 1968. CLERMONT, Yves; PEREY, Bernard. Quantitative study of the cell population of the seminiferous tubules in immature rats. American Journal of Anatomy, v. 100, n. 2, p. 241-267, 1957. COSTA, DEILER SAMPAIO; PAULA, T. A. R. Espermatogênese em mamíferos. Scientia, v. 4, 2003. CUNNINGHAM, James. Tratado de fisiologia veterinária. Elsevier Health Sciences, 2011. CUPPS, Perry T. (Ed.). Reproduction in domestic animals. Elsevier, 1991. DA SILVA, Emanuel Isaque Cordeiro. Fisiologia Clínica do Ciclo Estral de Vacas Leiteiras: Desenvolvimento Folicular, Corpo Lúteo e Etapas do Estro. 2020. Acervo pessoal. DA SILVA, Emanuel Isaque Cordeiro. Fisiologia da Reprodução Animal: Ovulação, Controle e Sincronização do Cio. 2020. Acervo pessoal. DUKES, Henry Hugh; SWENSON, Melvin J.; REECE, William O. Dukes fisiologia dos animais domésticos. Editora Guanabara Koogan, 1996. EPIFANO, Olga; DEAN, Jurrien. Genetic control of early folliculogenesis in mice. Trends in Endocrinology & Metabolism, v. 13, n. 4, p. 169-173, 2002. ERICKSON, B. H. Development and senescence of the postnatal bovine ovary. Journal of animal science, v. 25, n. 3, p. 800-805, 1966. REFERÊNCIAS BIBLIOGRÁFICAS -/- FELDMAN, Edward C. et al. Canine and feline endocrinology-e-book. Elsevier health sciences, 2014. FUSCO, Giuseppe; MINELLI, Alessandro. The Biology of Reproduction. Cambridge University Press, 2019. GALINA-HIDALGO, Carlos Salvador. A study of the development of testicular function and an evaluation of testicular biopsy in farm animals. 1971. Tese de Doutorado. Royal Veterinary College (University of London). GALLICANO, G. Ian. Composition, regulation, and function of the cytoskeleton in mammalian eggs and embryos. Front Biosci, v. 6, p. D1089-1108, 2001. GILBERT, Scott F. Biología del desarrollo. Ed. Médica Panamericana, 2005. GNESSI, Lucio; FABBRI, Andrea; SPERA, Giovanni. Gonadal peptides as mediators of development and functional control of the testis: an integrated system with hormones and local environment. Endocrine reviews, v. 18, n. 4, p. 541-609, 1997. HAFEZ, Elsayed Saad Eldin; HAFEZ, Bahaa. Reprodução animal. São Paulo: Manole, 2004. HEDGER, Mark P. Testicular leukocytes: what are they doing?. Reviews of reproduction, v. 2, n. 1, p. 38-47, 1997. HUTSON, James C. Testicular macrophages. In: International review of cytology. Academic Press, 1994. p. 99-143. HYTTEL, P. Gametogênese. In. HYTTEL, Poul; SINOWATZ, Fred; VEJLSTED, Morten. Embriologia veterinária. São Paulo: Elsevier Brasil, 2012. JOHNSON, Martin H. Essential reproduction. Nova Jersey: John Wiley & Sons, 2018. JONES, Richard E.; LOPEZ, Kristin H. Human reproductive biology. Academic Press, 2013. KIERSZENBAUM, Abraham L.; TRES, Laura L. Primordial germ cell‐somatic cell partnership: A balancing cell signaling act. Molecular Reproduction and Development: Incorporating Gamete Research, v. 60, n. 3, p. 277-280, 2001. MATZUK, Martin M. et al. Intercellular communication in the mammalian ovary: oocytes carry the conversation. Science, v. 296, n. 5576, p. 2178-2180, 2002. MCLAREN, Anne. Germ and somatic cell lineages in the developing gonad. Molecular and cellular endocrinology, v. 163, n. 1-2, p. 3-9, 2000. MCKINNON, Angus O. et al. (Ed.). Equine reproduction. John Wiley & Sons, 2011. MERCHANT-LARIOS, Horacio; MORENO-MENDOZA, Norma. Onset of sex differentiation: dialog between genes and cells. Archives of medical research, v. 32, n. 6, p. 553-558, 2001. MINTZ, Beatrice et al. Embryological phases of mammalian gametogenesis. Embryological phases of mammalian gametogenesis., v. 56, n. Suppl. 1, p. 31-43, 1960. MORALES, M. E. et al. Gametogénesis. I. Revisión de la literatura, con enfoque en la ovogénesis. Medicina Universitaria, v. 8, n. 32, p. 183-9, 2006. NAKATSUJI, NORIO; CHUMA, SHINICHIRO. Differentiation of mouse primordial germ cells into female or male germ cells. International Journal of Developmental Biology, v. 45, n. 3, p. 541-548, 2002. NILSSON, Eric; PARROTT, Jeff A.; SKINNER, Michael K. Basic fibroblast growth factor induces primordial follicle development and initiates folliculogenesis. Molecular and cellular endocrinology, v. 175, n. 1-2, p. 123-130, 2001. REFERÊNCIAS BIBLIOGRÁFICAS -/- NORRIS, David O.; LOPEZ, Kristin H. The endocrinology of the mammalian ovary. In: Hormones and reproduction of vertebrates. Academic Press, 2011. p. 59-72. PEDERSEN, Torben. Follicle growth in the immature mouse ovary. European Journal of Endocrinology, v. 62, n. 1, p. 117-132, 1969. PINEDA, Mauricio H. et al. McDonald's veterinary endocrinology and reproduction. Iowa state press, 2003. ROSER, J. F. Endocrine and paracrine control of sperm production in stallions. Animal Reproduction Science, v. 68, n. 3-4, p. 139-151, 2001. RUSSELL, Lonnie D. et al. Histological and histopathological evaluation of the testis. International journal of andrology, v. 16, n. 1, p. 83-83, 1993. RÜSSE, I.; SINOWATZ, F. Gametogenese. Lehrbuch der Embryologie der Haustiere, p. 42-92, 1991. SAITOU, Mitinori; BARTON, Sheila C.; SURANI, M. Azim. A molecular programme for the specification of germ cell fate in mice. Nature, v. 418, n. 6895, p. 293-300, 2002. SALISBURY, Glenn Wade et al. Physiology of reproduction and artificial insemination of cattle. WH Freeman and Company., 1978. SAWYER, Heywood R. et al. Formation of ovarian follicles during fetal development in sheep. Biology of reproduction, v. 66, n. 4, p. 1134-1150, 2002. SCARAMUZZI, R. J.; MARTENSZ, N. D.; VAN LOOK, P. F. A. Ovarian morphology and the concentration of steroids, and of gonadotrophins during the breeding season in ewes actively immunized against oestradiol-17β or oestrone. Reproduction, v. 59, n. 2, p. 303-310, 1980. SEIDEL JR, G. E. et al. Control of folliculogenesis and ovulation in domestic animals: puberal and adult function. In: 9th International Congress on Animal Reproduction and Artificial Insemination, 16th-20th June 1980. II. Round tables. Editorial Garsi., 1980. p. 11-16. SKINNER, Michael K. Cell-cell interactions in the testis. Endocrine Reviews, v. 12, n. 1, p. 45-77, 1991. SMITZ, J. E.; CORTVRINDT, Rita G. The earliest stages of folliculogenesis in vitro. Reproduction, v. 123, n. 2, p. 185-202, 2002. SORENSEN, Anton Marinus. Reproducción animal: principios y prácticas. México, 1982. SUTOVSKY, Peter; MANANDHAR, Gaurishankar. Mammalian spermatogenesis and sperm structure: anatomical and compartmental analysis. In. The sperm cell: Production, maturation, fertilization, regeneration, p. 1-30, 2006. TAZUKE, Salli I. et al. A germline-specific gap junction protein required for survival of differentiating early germ cells. Development, v. 129, n. 10, p. 2529-2539, 2002. VAN STRAATEN, H. W. M.; WENSING, C. J. G. Leydig cell development in the testis of the pig. Biology of Reproduction, v. 18, n. 1, p. 86-93, 1978. TURNBULL, K. E.; BRADEN, A. W. H.; MATTNER, P. E. The pattern of follicular growth and atresia in the ovine ovary. Australian Journal of Biological Sciences, v. 30, n. 3, p. 229-242, 1977. WASSARMAN, Paul M. Gametogenesis. Londres: Academic Press, 2012. WROBEL, K.-H.; SÜß, Franz. Identification and temporospatial distribution of bovine primordial germ cells prior to gonadal sexual differentiation. Anatomy and embryology, v. 197, n. 6, p. 451-467, 1998. REFERÊNCIAS BIBLIOGRÁFICAS -/- ZARCO, L. Gametogénese. In. PORTA, L. R.; MEDRANO, J. H. H. Fisiología reproductiva de los animales domésticos. Cidade do México: FMVZ-UNAM, 2018. ZIRKIN, Barry R. et al. Endocrine and Paracrine Regulation of Mammalian Spermatogenesis. In: Hormones and Reproduction of Vertebrates. Academic Press, 2011. p. 45-57. -/- REALIZAÇÃO -/- . (shrink)

This thirteenth volume of Collected Papers is an eclectic tome of 88 papers in various fields of sciences, such as astronomy, biology, calculus, economics, education and administration, game theory, geometry, graph theory, information fusion, decision making, instantaneous physics, quantum physics, neutrosophic logic and set, non-Euclidean geometry, number theory, paradoxes, philosophy of science, scientific research methods, statistics, and others, structured in 17 chapters (Neutrosophic Theory and Applications; Neutrosophic Algebra; Fuzzy Soft Sets; Neutrosophic Sets; Hypersoft Sets; Neutrosophic Semigroups; Neutrosophic Graphs; Superhypergraphs; Plithogeny; (...) Information Fusion; Statistics; Decision Making; Extenics; Instantaneous Physics; Paradoxism; Mathematica; Miscellanea), comprising 965 pages, published between 2005-2022 in different scientific journals, by the author alone or in collaboration with the following 110 co-authors (alphabetically ordered) from 26 countries: Abduallah Gamal, Sania Afzal, Firoz Ahmad, Muhammad Akram, Sheriful Alam, Ali Hamza, Ali H. M. Al-Obaidi, Madeleine Al-Tahan, Assia Bakali, Atiqe Ur Rahman, Sukanto Bhattacharya, Bilal Hadjadji, Robert N. Boyd, Willem K.M. Brauers, Umit Cali, Youcef Chibani, Victor Christianto, Chunxin Bo, Shyamal Dalapati, Mario Dalcín, Arup Kumar Das, Elham Davneshvar, Bijan Davvaz, Irfan Deli, Muhammet Deveci, Mamouni Dhar, R. Dhavaseelan, Balasubramanian Elavarasan, Sara Farooq, Haipeng Wang, Ugur Halden, Le Hoang Son, Hongnian Yu, Qays Hatem Imran, Mayas Ismail, Saeid Jafari, Jun Ye, Ilanthenral Kandasamy, W.B. Vasantha Kandasamy, Darjan Karabašević, Abdullah Kargın, Vasilios N. Katsikis, Nour Eldeen M. Khalifa, Madad Khan, M. Khoshnevisan, Tapan Kumar Roy, Pinaki Majumdar, Sreepurna Malakar, Masoud Ghods, Minghao Hu, Mingming Chen, Mohamed Abdel-Basset, Mohamed Talea, Mohammad Hamidi, Mohamed Loey, Mihnea Alexandru Moisescu, Muhammad Ihsan, Muhammad Saeed, Muhammad Shabir, Mumtaz Ali, Muzzamal Sitara, Nassim Abbas, Munazza Naz, Giorgio Nordo, Mani Parimala, Ion Pătrașcu, Gabrijela Popović, K. Porselvi, Surapati Pramanik, D. Preethi, Qiang Guo, Riad K. Al-Hamido, Zahra Rostami, Said Broumi, Saima Anis, Muzafer Saračević, Ganeshsree Selvachandran, Selvaraj Ganesan, Shammya Shananda Saha, Marayanagaraj Shanmugapriya, Songtao Shao, Sori Tjandrah Simbolon, Florentin Smarandache, Predrag S. Stanimirović, Dragiša Stanujkić, Raman Sundareswaran, Mehmet Șahin, Ovidiu-Ilie Șandru, Abdulkadir Șengür, Mohamed Talea, Ferhat Taș, Selçuk Topal, Alptekin Ulutaș, Ramalingam Udhayakumar, Yunita Umniyati, J. Vimala, Luige Vlădăreanu, Ştefan Vlăduţescu, Yaman Akbulut, Yanhui Guo, Yong Deng, You He, Young Bae Jun, Wangtao Yuan, Rong Xia, Xiaohong Zhang, Edmundas Kazimieras Zavadskas, Zayen Azzouz Omar, Xiaohong Zhang, Zhirou Ma.‬‬‬‬‬‬‬‬. (shrink)

This eleventh volume of Collected Papers includes 90 papers comprising 988 pages on Physics, Artificial Intelligence, Health Issues, Decision Making, Economics, Statistics, written between 2001-2022 by the author alone or in collaboration with the following 84 co-authors (alphabetically ordered) from 19 countries: Abhijit Saha, Abu Sufian, Jack Allen, Shahbaz Ali, Ali Safaa Sadiq, Aliya Fahmi, Atiqa Fakhar, Atiqa Firdous, Sukanto Bhattacharya, Robert N. Boyd, Victor Chang, Victor Christianto, V. Christy, Dao The Son, Debjit Dutta, Azeddine Elhassouny, Fazal Ghani, (...) Fazli Amin, Anirudha Ghosha, Nasruddin Hassan, Hoang Viet Long, Jhulaneswar Baidya, Jin Kim, Jun Ye, Darjan Karabašević, Vasilios N. Katsikis, Ieva Meidutė-Kavaliauskienė, F. Kaymarm, Nour Eldeen M. Khalifa, Madad Khan, Qaisar Khan, M. Khoshnevisan, Kifayat Ullah,, Volodymyr Krasnoholovets, Mukesh Kumar, Le Hoang Son, Luong Thi Hong Lan, Tahir Mahmood, Mahmoud Ismail, Mohamed Abdel-Basset, Siti Nurul Fitriah Mohamad, Mohamed Loey, Mai Mohamed, K. Mohana, Kalyan Mondal, Muhammad Gulfam, Muhammad Khalid Mahmood, Muhammad Jamil, Muhammad Yaqub Khan, Muhammad Riaz, Nguyen Dinh Hoa, Cu Nguyen Giap, Nguyen Tho Thong, Peide Liu, Pham Huy Thong, Gabrijela Popović‬‬‬‬‬‬‬‬‬‬, Surapati Pramanik, Dmitri Rabounski, Roslan Hasni, Rumi Roy, Tapan Kumar Roy, Said Broumi, Saleem Abdullah, Muzafer Saračević, Ganeshsree Selvachandran, Shariful Alam, Shyamal Dalapati, Housila P. Singh, R. Singh, Rajesh Singh, Predrag S. Stanimirović, Kasan Susilo, Dragiša Stanujkić, Alexandra Şandru, Ovidiu Ilie Şandru, Zenonas Turskis, Yunita Umniyati, Alptekin Ulutaș, Maikel Yelandi Leyva Vázquez, Binyamin Yusoff, Edmundas Kazimieras Zavadskas, Zhao Loon Wang.‬‬‬‬. (shrink)

This seventh volume of Collected Papers includes 70 papers comprising 974 pages on (theoretic and applied) neutrosophics, written between 2013-2021 by the author alone or in collaboration with the following 122 co-authors from 22 countries: Mohamed Abdel-Basset, Abdel-Nasser Hussian, C. Alexander, Mumtaz Ali, Yaman Akbulut, Amir Abdullah, Amira S. Ashour, Assia Bakali, Kousik Bhattacharya, Kainat Bibi, R. N. Boyd, Ümit Budak, Lulu Cai, Cenap Özel, Chang Su Kim, Victor Christianto, Chunlai Du, Chunxin Bo, Rituparna Chutia, Cu Nguyen Giap, Dao (...) The Son, Vinayak Devvrat, Arindam Dey, Partha Pratim Dey, Fahad Alsharari, Feng Yongfei, S. Ganesan, Shivam Ghildiyal, Bibhas C. Giri, Masooma Raza Hashmi, Ahmed Refaat Hawas, Hoang Viet Long, Le Hoang Son, Hongbo Wang, Hongnian Yu, Mihaiela Iliescu, Saeid Jafari, Temitope Gbolahan Jaiyeola, Naeem Jan, R. Jeevitha, Jun Ye, Anup Khan, Madad Khan, Salma Khan, Ilanthenral Kandasamy, W.B. Vasantha Kandasamy, Darjan Karabašević, Kifayat Ullah, Kishore Kumar P.K., Sujit Kumar De, Prasun Kumar Nayak, Malayalan Lathamaheswari, Luong Thi Hong Lan, Anam Luqman, Luu Quoc Dat, Tahir Mahmood, Hafsa M. Malik, Nivetha Martin, Mai Mohamed, Parimala Mani, Mingcong Deng, Mohammed A. Al Shumrani, Mohammad Hamidi, Mohamed Talea, Kalyan Mondal, Muhammad Akram, Muhammad Gulistan, Farshid Mofidnakhaei, Muhammad Shoaib, Muhammad Riaz, Karthika Muthusamy, Nabeela Ishfaq, Deivanayagampillai Nagarajan, Sumera Naz, Nguyen Dinh Hoa, Nguyen Tho Thong, Nguyen Xuan Thao, Noor ul Amin, Dragan Pamučar, Gabrijela Popović, S. Krishna Prabha, Surapati Pramanik, Priya R, Qiaoyan Li, Yaser Saber, Said Broumi, Saima Anis, Saleem Abdullah, Ganeshsree Selvachandran, Abdulkadir Sengür, Seyed Ahmad Edalatpanah, Shahbaz Ali, Shahzaib Ashraf, Shouzhen Zeng, Shio Gai Quek, Shuangwu Zhu, Shumaiza, Sidra Sayed, Sohail Iqbal, Songtao Shao, Sundas Shahzadi, Dragiša Stanujkić, Željko Stević, Udhayakumar Ramalingam, Zunaira Rashid, Hossein Rashmanlou, Rajkumar Verma, Luige Vlădăreanu, Victor Vlădăreanu, Desmond Jun Yi Tey, Selçuk Topal, Naveed Yaqoob, Yanhui Guo, Yee Fei Gan, Yingcang Ma, Young Bae Jun, Yuping Lai, Hafiz Abdul Wahab, Wei Yang, Xiaohong Zhang, Edmundas Kazimieras Zavadskas, Lemnaouar Zedam. (shrink)

This eighth volume of Collected Papers includes 75 papers comprising 973 pages on (theoretic and applied) neutrosophics, written between 2010-2022 by the author alone or in collaboration with the following 102 co-authors (alphabetically ordered) from 24 countries: Mohamed Abdel-Basset, Abduallah Gamal, Firoz Ahmad, Ahmad Yusuf Adhami, Ahmed B. Al-Nafee, Ali Hassan, Mumtaz Ali, Akbar Rezaei, Assia Bakali, Ayoub Bahnasse, Azeddine Elhassouny, Durga Banerjee, Romualdas Bausys, Mircea Boșcoianu, Traian Alexandru Buda, Bui Cong Cuong, Emilia Calefariu, Ahmet Çevik, Chang Su Kim, (...) class='Hi'>Victor Christianto, Dae Wan Kim, Daud Ahmad, Arindam Dey, Partha Pratim Dey, Mamouni Dhar, H. A. Elagamy, Ahmed K. Essa, Sudipta Gayen, Bibhas C. Giri, Daniela Gîfu, Noel Batista Hernández, Hojjatollah Farahani, Huda E. Khalid, Irfan Deli, Saeid Jafari, Tèmítópé Gbóláhàn Jaíyéolá, Sripati Jha, Sudan Jha, Ilanthenral Kandasamy, W.B. Vasantha Kandasamy, Darjan Karabašević, M. Karthika, Kawther F. Alhasan, Giruta Kazakeviciute-Januskeviciene, Qaisar Khan, Kishore Kumar P K, Prem Kumar Singh, Ranjan Kumar, Maikel Leyva-Vázquez, Mahmoud Ismail, Tahir Mahmood, Hafsa Masood Malik, Mohammad Abobala, Mai Mohamed, Gunasekaran Manogaran, Seema Mehra, Kalyan Mondal, Mohamed Talea, Mullai Murugappan, Muhammad Akram, Muhammad Aslam Malik, Muhammad Khalid Mahmood, Nivetha Martin, Durga Nagarajan, Nguyen Van Dinh, Nguyen Xuan Thao, Lewis Nkenyereya, Jagan M. Obbineni, M. Parimala, S. K. Patro, Peide Liu, Pham Hong Phong, Surapati Pramanik, Gyanendra Prasad Joshi, Quek Shio Gai, R. Radha, A.A. Salama, S. Satham Hussain, Mehmet Șahin, Said Broumi, Ganeshsree Selvachandran, Selvaraj Ganesan, Shahbaz Ali, Shouzhen Zeng, Manjeet Singh, A. Stanis Arul Mary, Dragiša Stanujkić, Yusuf Șubaș, Rui-Pu Tan, Mirela Teodorescu, Selçuk Topal, Zenonas Turskis, Vakkas Uluçay, Norberto Valcárcel Izquierdo, V. Venkateswara Rao, Volkan Duran, Ying Li, Young Bae Jun, Wadei F. Al-Omeri, Jian-qiang Wang, Lihshing Leigh Wang, Edmundas Kazimieras Zavadskas. (shrink)

This ninth volume of Collected Papers includes 87 papers comprising 982 pages on Neutrosophic Theory and its applications in Algebra, written between 2014-2022 by the author alone or in collaboration with the following 81 co-authors (alphabetically ordered) from 19 countries: E.O. Adeleke, A.A.A. Agboola, Ahmed B. Al-Nafee, Ahmed Mostafa Khalil, Akbar Rezaei, S.A. Akinleye, Ali Hassan, Mumtaz Ali, Rajab Ali Borzooei , Assia Bakali, Cenap Özel, Victor Christianto, Chunxin Bo, Rakhal Das, Bijan Davvaz, R. Dhavaseelan, B. Elavarasan, Fahad Alsharari, (...) T. Gharibah, Hina Gulzar, Hashem Bordbar, Le Hoang Son, Emmanuel Ilojide, Tèmítópé Gbóláhàn Jaíyéolá, M. Karthika, Ilanthenral Kandasamy, W.B. Vasantha Kandasamy, Huma Khan, Madad Khan, Mohsin Khan, Hee Sik Kim, Seon Jeong Kim, Valeri Kromov, R. M. Latif, Madeleine Al-Tahan, Mehmat Ali Ozturk, Minghao Hu, S. Mirvakili, Mohammad Abobala, Mohammad Hamidi, Mohammed Abdel-Sattar, Mohammed A. Al Shumrani, Mohamed Talea, Muhammad Akram, Muhammad Aslam, Muhammad Aslam Malik, Muhammad Gulistan, Muhammad Shabir, G. Muhiuddin, Memudu Olaposi Olatinwo, Osman Anis, Choonkil Park, M. Parimala, Ping Li, K. Porselvi, D. Preethi, S. Rajareega, N. Rajesh, Udhayakumar Ramalingam, Riad K. Al-Hamido, Yaser Saber, Arsham Borumand Saeid, Saeid Jafari, Said Broumi, A.A. Salama, Ganeshsree Selvachandran, Songtao Shao, Seok-Zun Song, Tahsin Oner, M. Mohseni Takallo, Binod Chandra Tripathy, Tugce Katican, J. Vimala, Xiaohong Zhang, Xiaoyan Mao, Xiaoying Wu, Xingliang Liang, Xin Zhou, Yingcang Ma, Young Bae Jun, Juanjuan Zhang. (shrink)

This tenth volume of Collected Papers includes 86 papers in English and Spanish languages comprising 972 pages, written between 2014-2022 by the author alone or in collaboration with the following 105 co-authors (alphabetically ordered) from 26 countries: Abu Sufian, Ali Hassan, Ali Safaa Sadiq, Anirudha Ghosh, Assia Bakali, Atiqe Ur Rahman, Laura Bogdan, Willem K.M. Brauers, Erick González Caballero, Fausto Cavallaro, Gavrilă Calefariu, T. Chalapathi, Victor Christianto, Mihaela Colhon, Sergiu Boris Cononovici, Mamoni Dhar, Irfan Deli, Rebeca Escobar-Jara, Alexandru Gal, (...) N. Gandotra, Sudipta Gayen, Vassilis C. Gerogiannis, Noel Batista Hernández, Hongnian Yu, Hongbo Wang, Mihaiela Iliescu, F. Nirmala Irudayam, Sripati Jha, Darjan Karabašević, T. Katican, Bakhtawar Ali Khan, Hina Khan, Volodymyr Krasnoholovets, R. Kiran Kumar, Manoranjan Kumar Singh, Ranjan Kumar, M. Lathamaheswari, Yasar Mahmood, Nivetha Martin, Adrian Mărgean, Octavian Melinte, Mingcong Deng, Marcel Migdalovici, Monika Moga, Sana Moin, Mohamed Abdel-Basset, Mohamed Elhoseny, Rehab Mohamed, Mohamed Talea, Kalyan Mondal, Muhammad Aslam, Muhammad Aslam Malik, Muhammad Ihsan, Muhammad Naveed Jafar, Muhammad Rayees Ahmad, Muhammad Saeed, Muhammad Saqlain, Muhammad Shabir, Mujahid Abbas, Mumtaz Ali, Radu I. Munteanu, Ghulam Murtaza, Munazza Naz, Tahsin Oner, ‪Gabrijela Popović‬‬‬‬‬, Surapati Pramanik, R. Priya, S.P. Priyadharshini, Midha Qayyum, Quang-Thinh Bui, Shazia Rana, Akbara Rezaei, Jesús Estupiñán Ricardo, Rıdvan Sahin, Saeeda Mirvakili, Said Broumi, A. A. Salama, Flavius Aurelian Sârbu, Ganeshsree Selvachandran, Javid Shabbir, Shio Gai Quek, Son Hoang Le, Florentin Smarandache, Dragiša Stanujkić, S. Sudha, Taha Yasin Ozturk, Zaigham Tahir, The Houw Iong, Ayse Topal, Alptekin Ulutaș, Maikel Yelandi Leyva Vázquez, Rizha Vitania, Luige Vlădăreanu, Victor Vlădăreanu, Ștefan Vlăduțescu, J. Vimala, Dan Valeriu Voinea, Adem Yolcu, Yongfei Feng, Abd El-Nasser H. Zaied, Edmundas Kazimieras Zavadskas.‬‬. (shrink)

In this eleventh book of scilogs – called in-turns and out-turns –, one may find new and old questions and solutions, referring mostly to topics on Neutrosophy, but also Multispace, with miscellaneous addition of topics on Physics, Mathematics, or Sociology – email messages to research colleagues, or replies, notes about authors, articles, or books, spontaneous ideas, and so on. -/- Exchanging ideas with Prem Kumar Singh, Feng Liu, Nicolae Bălașa, Jimmy Quellet, Minodora Rușchița, Frank Gelli, A. R. Vătuiu, Victor (...) Christianto, Vladimir I. Rogozhin, Robert Neil Boyd, Akira Kanda, Stefan Spaarmann, Oliver Consa, Yabin Shao, Junle Zhuo, Nivetha Martin, Said Broumi, Jean Dezert, Erick González, Tomasz Witczak, B. De Baets, I. Couso, D. Dubois, L. Good, Mihaela Colhon, Atiqe Ur Rahman, Muhammad Saeed, Muhammad Ihsan, Edeline Nancy, Shawkat Alkhazaleh, Shazia Rana, Vasantha Kandasamy, Santanu Acharjee, Mohamed Al-Shmrani, Parimala Manie, Mehmet Unver, Murat Olgun, Adel Aleidhri, Akira Kanda, Ilanthenral Kandasamy, Mircea Zărnescu, R. Tayebi Khorami, Arsham Borumand Saeid, Maisam Jdid, M. Abobala, Riad Hamido, Rafael Rojas, Esmaeil Zarei, Faisal Khan, Rouzbeh Abbassi, Adel Al-Odhari, Henry Garrett, Ackbar Rezaei, Saeid Jafari, Karthika Muthusamy, Harish Garg, Huda E. Khalid, Gonca D. Güngör, Muslim A. Noah Zainal, Fakhry Asad Agusfrianto, Madeleine Al-Tahan, Mariam Hariri, Yudi Mahatma, Masoud Ghods, Marco Brigliadori, Luis Enrique Aponte Pérez, Amr Mohammed, M. Aslam (in order of reference in the book). (shrink)

Are science and religion compatible when it comes to understanding cosmology (the origin of the universe), biology (the origin of life and of the human species), ethics, and the human mind (minds, brains, souls, and free will)? Do science and religion occupy non-overlapping magisteria? Is Intelligent Design a scientific theory? How do the various faith traditions view the relationship between science and religion? What, if any, are the limits of scientific explanation? What are the most important open questions, problems, or (...) challenges confronting the relationship between science and religion, and what are the prospects for progress? These and other questions are explored in Science and Religion: 5 Questions--a collection of thirty-three interviews based on 5 questions presented to some of the world's most influential and prominent philosophers, scientists, theologians, apologists, and atheists. Contributions by Simon Blackburn, Susan Blackmore, Sean Carroll, William Lane Craig, William Dembski, Daniel C. Dennett, George F.R. Ellis, Owen Flanagan, Owen Gingerich, Rebecca Newberger Goldstein, John F. Haught, Muzaffar Iqbal, Lawrence Krauss, Colin McGinn, Alister McGrath, Mary Midgley, Seyyed Hossein Nasr, Timothy O'Connor, Massimo Pigliucci, John Polkinghorne, James Randi, Alex Rosenberg, Michael Ruse, Robert John Russell, John Searle, Michael Shermer, Victor J. Stenger, Robert Thurman, Michael Tooley, Charles Townes, Peter van Inwagen, Keith Ward, Rabbi David Wolpe. (shrink)

In this thirteenth book of scilogs – one may find topics on Neutrosophy, Plithogeny, Physics, Mathematics, Philosophy – email messages to research colleagues, or replies, notes, comments, remarks about authors, articles, or books, spontaneous ideas, and so on. It presents new types of soft sets and new types of topologies. -/- Exchanging ideas with Mohammad Abobala, Ishfaq Ahmad, Ibrahim M. Almanjahie, Fatimah Alshahrani, Nizar Altounji, Muhammad Aslam, Said Broumi, Victor Christianto, R. Diksh, Feng Liu, Frank Julian Gelli, Erick Gonzalez (...) Caballero, Riad Hamido, Yaser Al-Hasan, Ahmed Hatip, Yasin Karmouta, Nivetha Martin, Preda Mihăilescu, V. Lakshmana Gomathi Nayagam, Ze Carlos Tiago de Oliveira, Alexey Platonov, Andrei Pogany, Shakti Prasad, Ranulfo Paiva Barbosa (Sobrinho), Dmitri Rabounski, Ackbar Rezaei, Constantin Sandu, A. Saraswathi, Usman Shahzad, Gocho V. Sharlanov, Stefan Spaarmann, Michael Voskoglou, Vinay Kumar Yadav, Tomasz Witczak, William H. Woodall, Mircea Zărnescu, Mohamed Bisher Zeina (in order of reference in the book). (shrink)

LEITE (Fábio Rodrigo) – STOFFEL (Jean-François), Introduction (pp. 3-6). BARRA (Eduardo Salles de O.) – SANTOS (Ricardo Batista dos), Duhem’s analysis of Newtonian method and the logical priority of physics over metaphysics (pp. 7-19). BORDONI (Stefano), The French roots of Duhem’s early historiography and epistemology (pp. 20-35). CHIAPPIN (José R. N.) – LARANJEIRAS (Cássio Costa), Duhem’s critical analysis of mecha­ni­cism and his defense of a formal conception of theoretical phy­sics (pp. 36-53). GUEGUEN (Marie) – PSILLOS (Stathis), Anti-­scepticism and epistemic humility (...) in Pierre Duhem’s philosophy of science (pp. 54-72). LISTON (Michael), Duhem : images of science, historical continuity, and the first crisis in physics (pp. 73-84). MAIOCCHI (Roberto), Duhem in pre-war Italian philos­ophy : the reasons of an absence (pp. 85-92). HERNÁNDEZ MÁRQUEZ (Víctor Manuel), Was Pierre Duhem an «esprit de finesse» ? (pp. 93-107). NEEDHAM (Paul), Was Duhem justified in not distinguishing between physical and chemical atomism ? (pp. 108-111). OLGUIN (Roberto Estrada), «Bon sens» and «noûs» (pp. 112-126). OLIVEIRA (Amelia J.), Duhem’s legacy for the change in the historiography of science : An analysis based on Kuhn’s writings (pp. 127-139). PRÍNCIPE (João), Poincaré and Duhem : Resonances in their first epistemological reflec­tions (pp. 140-156). MONDRAGON (Damián Islas), Book review of «Pierre Duhem : entre física y metafísica» (pp. 157-159). STOFFEL (Jean-François), Book review of P. Duhem : «La théorie physique : son objet, sa structure» / edit. by S. Roux (pp. 160-162). STOFFEL (Jean-François), Book review of St. Bordoni : «When historiography met epistemology» (pp. 163-165). (shrink)

The Theatre for Development idea is essentially aimed at reinstating the function of the theatre as a creative tool for self-expression and articulation and as an empowering process through which people could develop a critical awareness of the environment. Accordingly, the guiding principle of TfD and what sets it apart from conventional western oriented theatre is its ability to liberate voices and engender people‟s participation thus propelling them to act upon their reality. It is this capacity to engender people to (...) action that makes TfD a veritable development tool. Arguably, TfD as a development tool enables participatory communication which is at the heart of development as affirmed by Victor Hugo R. Banda‟s observation that theatre is a “conversation shared with society something that transforms them” (2006). (shrink)

A remarkable feature of the philosophical work on conspiracy theory theory has been that most philosophers agree there is nothing inherently problematic about conspiracy theories (AKA the thesis of particularism). Recent work, however, has challenged this consensus view, arguing that there really is something epistemically wrong with conspiracy theorising (AKA generalism). Are particularism and generalism incompatible? By looking at just how much particularists and generalists might have to give away to make their theoretical viewpoints compatible, I will argue that particularists (...) can accept many of the concerns that motivate generalism because generalism can never be about ‘all’ conspiracy theories without being either ahistorical or apolitical. In the end generalist critiques are best seen as useful guidelines or considerations for the appraising of particular conspiracy theories. (shrink)

To most of us – believers and non-believers alike – the possibility of a perfect God co-existing with the kinds of evil that we see calls out for explanation. It is unsurprising, therefore, that the belief that God must have justifying reasons for allowing all the evil that we see has been a perennial feature of theistic thought. Recently, however, a growing number of authors have argued that the existence of a perfect God is compatible with the existence of gratuitous (...) evil. Given powerful, millenia-long sensibilities about power and love and justice, it isn’t hard to find that suggestion simply incredible. Nonetheless, in this paper I will argue that the most prominent theistic alternatives to what has seemed incredible to most of us throughout most of history are themselves patently unacceptable for the theist as well. On any of the most widely accepted accounts of how God could have justifying reasons for permitting some evils, God’s existence means that we have justifying reasons for perpetrating and allowing every evil that we see. That's hard to swallow too. If I’m right about all of this, then two competing outcomes seem to present themselves as a possible result. On the one hand, for the theist, the apparently outrageous suggestion that the existence of a perfect God is compatible with gratuitous evil no longer looks like it faces a formidable, hard-to-resist alternative. On the other hand, some like me might think that my arguments go no distance at all towards dispelling the incredibility of the gratuitous evil nouvelle vague. On this line, theism may seem now to be between the rock and the hard place: it seems hard to make sense of the existence of a perfect God whether or not He has justifying reasons for allowing all the evil that we see. (shrink)

Abstract: Smoke detectors are critical devices for early fire detection and life-saving interventions. This research paper explores the application of Artificial Neural Networks (ANNs) in smoke detection systems. The study aims to develop a robust and accurate smoke detection model using ANNs. Surprisingly, the results indicate a 100% accuracy rate, suggesting promising potential for ANNs in enhancing smoke detection technology. However, this paper acknowledges the need for a comprehensive evaluation beyond accuracy. It discusses potential challenges, such as overfitting, dataset size, (...) and class imbalance, and presents strategies employed to address these issues. Additionally, the paper emphasizes the importance of alternative evaluation metrics, including precision, recall, and F1-score, to assess the model's performance comprehensively. Detailed information regarding the model architecture, data preprocessing, and hyperparameter tuning is provided to enhance the reproducibility of the research. The study also discusses ethical considerations and the implications of false positives and false negatives in smoke detection applications. While achieving 100% accuracy is a notable accomplishment, this paper calls for cautious interpretation and further validation in real-world settings. It concludes by highlighting areas for future research and improvement in smoke detection technology, emphasizing the need for practical deployment and the reduction of false alarms. (shrink)

Looking at the recent spate of claims about “fake news” which appear to be a new feature of political discourse, I argue that fake news presents an interesting problem in epistemology. Te phenomena of fake news trades upon tolerating a certain indiference towards truth, which is sometimes expressed insincerely by political actors. Tis indiference and insincerity, I argue, has been allowed to fourish due to the way in which we have set the terms of the “public” epistemology that maintains what (...) is considered “rational” public discourse. I argue one potential salve to the problem of fake news is to challenge this public epistemology by injecting a certain ethical consideration back into the discourse. (shrink)

Assumptions about obesity—e.g., its connection to ill health, its causes, etc.—are still prevalent today, and they make up what I call the medical model of fatness. In this paper, I argue that the medical model was established on the basis of insufficient evidence and has nevertheless continued to be relied upon to justify methodological choices that further entrench the assumptions of the medical model. These choices are illegitimate in so far as they conflict with both the epistemic and social aims (...) of obesity research. I conclude the paper with a partial solution to these epistemic and social shortcomings. (shrink)

Philosophers of science commonly connect ontology and science, stating that these disciplines maintain a two-way relationship: on the one hand, we can extract ontology from scientific theories; on the other hand, ontology provides the realistic content of our scientific theories. In this article, we will critically examine the process of naturalizing ontology, i.e., confining the work of ontologists merely to the task of pointing out which entities certain theories commit themselves to. We will use non-relativistic quantum mechanics as a case (...) study. We begin by distinguishing two roles for ontology: the first would be characterized by cataloging existing entities according to quantum mechanics; the second would be characterized by establishing more general ontological categories in which existing entities must be classified. We argue that only the first step is available for a naturalistic approach; the second step not being open for determination or anchoring in science. Finally, we also argue that metaphysics is still a step beyond ontology, not contained in either of the two tasks of ontology, being thus even farther from science. (shrink)

Pauline Kleingeld and Marcus Willaschek, in a co-authored article, declare that their purportedly new interpretation of Immanuel Kant’s writings on autonomy reveals that his moral philosophy is neither realist nor constructivist. However, as I explain here, John Rawls already occupies the area of intellectual territory to which Kleingeld and Willaschek attempt to lay claim: Rawls interprets Kant’s moral philosophy as neither realist, as Kleingeld and Willaschek evidently construe this term, nor constructivist, as they evidently construe this term. Contra Kleingeld and (...) Willaschek, the moral constructivism attributed to Kant by Rawls is not voluntarist, and Rawls’s account of Kant’s concept of autonomy is not paradoxical. In order to understand autonomy, it is necessary to understand Kant’s complex conception of the will, which structures his moral philosophy (as Rawls, unlike Kleingeld and Willaschek, explains). Rawls, like Kant, but unlike Kleingeld and Willaschek, clearly distinguishes between certain importantly different questions about normativity and obligation. Kant’s moral philosophy, according to Rawls’s insightful interpretation, is a form of objective moral constructivism. (shrink)

Belief in conspiracy theories is typically considered irrational, and as a consequence of this, conspiracy theorists––those who dare believe some conspiracy theory––have been charged with a variety of epistemic or psychological failings. Yet recent philosophical work has challenged the view that belief in conspiracy theories should be considered as typically irrational. By performing an intra-group analysis of those people we call “conspiracy theorists”, we find that the problematic traits commonly ascribed to the general group of conspiracy theorists turn out to (...) be merely a set of stereotypical behaviours and thought patterns associated with a purported subset of that group. If we understand that the supposed prob- lem of belief in conspiracy theories is centred on the beliefs of this purported sub- set––the conspiracists––then we can reconcile the recent philosophical contribu- tions to the wider academic debate on the rationality of belief in conspiracy theories. (shrink)

In this article, I approach some phenomena seen predominantly on social-media sites that are grouped together as cancel culture with guidance from two major themes in Plato’s thought. In the first section, I argue that shame can play a constructive and valuable role in a person’s improvement, just as we see Socrates throughout Plato’s dialogues use shame to help his interlocutors improve. This insight can help us understand the value of shaming people online for, among other things, their morally reprehensible (...) views. In the second section, I argue that it is required for the proper functioning of democratic institutions that some views be excluded from the public sphere, which follows some Platonic ideas from the Laws. In neither case do I argue that this approach is good in an unqualified sense or even ultima facie good. However, I maintain that these important insights from Plato’s dialogues illuminate crucial aspects of how we should think about cancel culture. (shrink)

Two systems of belief change based on paraconsistent logics are introduced in this article by means of AGM-like postulates. The first one, AGMp, is defined over any paraconsistent logic which extends classical logic such that the law of excluded middle holds w.r.t. the paraconsistent negation. The second one, AGMo , is specifically designed for paraconsistent logics known as Logics of Formal Inconsistency (LFIs), which have a formal consistency operator that allows to recover all the classical inferences. Besides the three usual (...) operations over belief sets, namely expansion, contraction and revision (which is obtained from contraction by the Levi identity), the underlying paraconsistent logic allows us to define additional operations involving (non-explosive) contradictions. Thus, it is defined external revision (which is obtained from contraction by the reverse Levi identity), consolidation and semi-revision, all of them over belief sets. It is worth noting that the latter operations, introduced by S. Hansson, involve the temporary acceptance of contradictory beliefs, and so they were originally defined only for belief bases. Unlike to previous proposals in the literature, only defined for specific paraconsistent logics, the present approach can be applied to a general class of paraconsistent logics which are supraclassical, thus preserving the spirit of AGM. Moreover, representation theorems w.r.t. constructions based on selection functions are obtained for all the operations. (shrink)

This essay aims to expose the metaphysical underpinnings of enactivism. While enactivism relies heavily on rejecting the traditional mind-body problem by excluding the familiar thought experiments that favor phenomenal dualism, the crucial point that is overlooked is instead the brain-body problem, specifically the crucial interaction between the brain and the bodily limbs in their embodied activities of perception and cognition. If enactivism is correct, differences in sensory experience necessarily entail differences in embodied activity—this is the metaphysical core of enactivism, which (...) we think is entirely wrong. We will argue that a physical or biological body ("Körper") is configured or shaped into a perceptually living body ("Leib") by brain patterns and not by embodied activity or by the so-called sensorimotor contingencies. Undoubtedly, embodied actions influence sensory perception. However, since variations in embodied actions do not necessarily lead to variations in sensory experience, they are not metaphysically constitutive of these experiences (supervenience claim). (shrink)

Traditional approaches to conflict are oriented towards establishing (or re-establishing) consensus, either in the form of a resolution of the conflict or in the form of an ‘agree-to-disagree’ standstill between the stakeholders. In this paper, we criticize these traditional approaches, each for specific reasons, and we propose and develop the agonistic approach to conflict. Based on Chantal Mouffe’s agonistic democratic theory, the agonistic approach to conflict is more welcoming of dissensus, replacing discussion stoppers with discussion starters and replacing standstills with (...) contestation. We illustrate such replacements and develop this approach, we analyse technological conflicts in a concrete R&D setting: the global hydrogen economy. From this context, we focus on the conflict between the proponents of blue hydrogen (drawn from fossil fuels) and those of green hydrogen (created through electrolysis). We conclude by highlighting the advantage of the agonistic approach but also drawing attention to its own specific risk, namely, antagonism. (shrink)

A fiction may prescribe imagining that a pig can talk or tell the future. A fiction may prescribe imagining that torturing innocent persons is a good thing. We generally comply with imaginative prescriptions like the former, but not always with prescriptions like the latter: we imagine non-evaluative fictions without difficulty but sometimes resist imagining value-rich fictions. Thus arises the puzzle of imaginative resistance. Most analyses of the phenomenon focus on the content of the relevant imaginings. The present analysis focuses instead (...) on the character of certain kinds of imaginings, arguing that we resist in such cases given the rich evaluative character of the imaginings prescribed, and the agent-dependent constraints on imagining in such ways. (shrink)

The potential for vaccines to prevent the spread of infectious diseases is crucial for vaccination policy and ethics. In this paper, I discuss recent evidence that the current COVID-19 vaccines have only a modest and short-lived effect on reducing SARS-CoV-2 transmission and argue that this has at least four important ethical implications. First, getting vaccinated against COVID-19 should be seen primarily as a self-protective choice for individuals. Second, moral condemnation of unvaccinated people for causing direct harm to others is unjustified. (...) Third, the case for a harm-based moral obligation to get vaccinated against COVID-19 is weak. Finally, and perhaps most significantly, coercive COVID-19 vaccination policies (e.g., measures that exclude unvaccinated people from society) cannot be directly justified by the harm principle. (shrink)

In the early twentieth century, many philosophers in America thought that time should be taken seriously in one way or another. George P. Adams (1882-1961) argued that the past, present and future are all real but only the present is actual. I call this theory ‘actualist eternalism’. In this paper, I articulate his novel brand of eternalism as one piece of his metaphysical system and I explain how he argued for the view in light of the best explanations of temporal (...) experience and the present. I argue that his exploitation of analogies between time and modality offer some lessons for current debates about time such as the importance of providing a temporal epistemology. I also extract what I call the temporal boundary problem and argue that it gives rise to an unaddressed challenge for presentists and growing block theorists. (shrink)

Th e present article reports a series of experiments designed to extend the empirical investigation of folk metaethical intuitions by examining how different kinds of ethical disagreement can impact attributions of objectivity to ethical claims.

In this paper, I relate key features of Adolf Reinach’s abundant ontology of propositional states of affairs of his to Armstrong’s—or an Armstrongian—state of affairs ontology, with special regard to finding out how sparse or abundant the latter is with respect to negative states of affairs. After introducing the issue, I clarify the notion of a propositional state of affairs, paying special attention to the notion of abstract versus concrete. I show how Reinach’s states of affairs are propositional, and how (...) they compare with Chisholm’s well-known propositional states of affairs. In the next section, I outline Reinach’s five roles for states of affairs and show that only one of them is relevant to Armstrongian state of affairs ontology. In the following section, I utilise this role to create a ranking of state of affairs ontologies according to how abundant they are. It is, however, unclear which level Armstrongian state of affairs ontology is at, since it is unclear if, like Reinach’s ontology, it includes negative states of affairs. In the final section, I argue that the answer is a qualified ‘yes’, i.e. it does not occupy the sparsest level. (shrink)

Moral latitude is only ever a matter of coincidence on the most popular decision procedure in the literature on moral uncertainty. In all possible choice situations other than those in which two or more options happen to be tied for maximal expected choiceworthiness, Maximize Expected Choiceworthiness implies that only one possible option is uniquely appropriate. A better theory of appropriateness would be more sensitive to the decision maker’s credence in theories that endorse agent-centred prerogatives. In this paper, we will develop (...) and defend a modified version of this view that allows for agent-centred prerogatives and supererogation as part of its verdicts about appropriateness. (shrink)

What is it to be a woman? What is it to be a man? We start by laying out desiderata for an analysis of 'woman' and 'man': descriptively, it should link these gender categories to sex biology without reducing them to sex biology, and politically, it should help us explain and combat traditional sexism while also allowing us to make sense of the activist view that gendering should be consensual. Using a Putnam-style 'Twin Earth' example, we argue that none of (...) the existing analyses in the feminist literature succeeds in meeting all of our desiderata. Finally, we propose a positive account that we believe can satisfy all the desiderata outlined. According to our theory, the genders 'woman' and 'man' are individuated not by their contemporary connections to sex biology, but by their historical continuity with classes that were originally closely connected to sex biology. (shrink)

This dissertation explores the idea and ethics of vaccination for the sake of others. It conceptually distinguishes four different kinds of vaccination—self-protective, paternalistic, altruistic, and indirect—based on who receives the primary benefits of vaccination and who ultimately makes the vaccination decision. It describes the results of focus group studies that were conducted to investigate what people who might get vaccinated altruistically think of this idea. It also applies the different kinds of vaccination to ethical issues surrounding COVID-19, such as lockdown (...) measures, routine or mandatory vaccination of healthy children, and the ethical justification of restrictive measures for unvaccinated people. A more general philosophical account of vaccination ethics is ultimately developed, which is based not on moral duties, but on the moral reasons that people may have to get vaccinated for the sake of others. It is argued that such reasons may be stronger or weaker, depending on various factors related to the vaccines in question and the specific epidemiological circumstances. (shrink)

After reviewing Kant’s well-known criticisms of the traditional proofs of God’s existence and his preferred moral argument, this paper presents a detailedanalysis of a densely-packed theistic argument in Religion within the Bounds of Bare Reason. Humanity’s ultimate moral destiny can be fulfilled only through organized religion, for only by participating in a religious community (or “church”) can we overcome the evil in human nature. Yet we cannot conceive how such a community can even be founded without presupposing God’s existence. Viewing (...) God as the internal moral lawgiver, empowering a community of believers, is Kant’s ultimate rationale for theistic belief. (shrink)

The selected effects or ‘etiological’ theory of Proper function is a naturalistic and realist account of biological teleology. It is used to analyse normativity in philosophy of language, philosophy of mind, philosophy of medicine and elsewhere. The theory has been developed with a simple and intuitive view of natural selection. Traits are selected because of their positive effects on the fitness of the organisms that have them. These ‘selected effects’ are the Proper functions of the traits. Proponents argue that this (...) analysis of biological teleology has the unique advantage that the selected effect function of a trait is also a causal explanation of the trait: the trait exists because it performs this function. We show, however, that selected effect functions as currently defined explain the existence of traits only under highly restrictive assumptions about evolutionary dynamics. In many common scenarios in which traits evolve by natural selection, selected effect functions do not explain those traits. This is because definitions of selected effect function extract from any evolutionary scenario only the information that would be explanatorily relevant in the simple evolutionary scenario implicit in those definitions. When applied to more complex scenarios selected effect functions omit the key information that is explanatorily relevant in those scenarios. The assumptions required for selected effect functions to be explanatory are particularly unlikely to hold in the domain that its proponents care most about - the evolution of representation. A more adequate selected effects theory of Proper functions may be possible, but will require much greater attention to the structure of actual evolutionary explanations. (shrink)

Countermeasures for mpox (formerly known as monkeypox), primarily vaccines, have been in limited supply in many countries during outbreaks. Equitable allocation of scarce resources during public health emergencies is a complex challenge. Identifying the objectives and core values for the allocation of mpox countermeasures, using those values to provide guidance for priority groups and prioritisation tiers, and optimising allocation implementation are important. The fundamental values for the allocation of mpox countermeasures are: preventing death and illness; reducing the association between death (...) or illness and unjust disparities; prioritising those who prevent harm or mitigate disparities; recognising contributions to combating an outbreak; and treating similar individuals similarly. Ethically and equitably marshalling available countermeasures requires articulating these fundamental objectives, identifying priority tiers, and recognising trade-offs between prioritising the people at the highest risk of infection and the people at the highest risk of harm if infected. These five values can provide guidance on preferable priority categories for a more ethically sound response and suggest methods for optimising allocation of countermeasures for mpox and other diseases for which countermeasures are in short supply. Properly marshalling available countermeasures will be crucial for future effective and equitable national responses to outbreaks. (shrink)

Explanations in behavioural neuroscience are often said to be mechanistic in the sense that they explain an organism’s behaviour by describing the activities and organisation of the organism’s parts that are “constitutively relevant” to organism behaviour. Much has been said about the constitutive relevance of working parts (in debates about the so-called “mutual manipulability criterion”), but relatively little has been said about the constitutive relevance of the organising relations between working parts. Some New Mechanists seem to endorse a simple causal-linking (...) account: organising relations are constitutively relevant to organism behaviour if and only if (and because) they are causal relations that link the working parts that are constitutively relevant to organism behaviour. In this paper, I argue that the causal-linking account is inadequate because it neglects the constitutive relevance of anatomical relations that organise the working parts of a behaving organism. I demonstrate this by considering a case study where the anatomical organisation of the barn owl (Tyto alba) is constitutively relevant to their mechanism for sound localization. The anatomical organisation of this mechanism is best understood as the back-and-forth flow of task information across 7 “levels of anatomy” (a notion that I distinguish from levels of mechanism). A further implication, I conclude, is that at least some of the interlevel structure of neuroscientific explanation is accounted for by levels of anatomy, not levels of mechanism. (shrink)

This paper critically examines color relationalism and color relativism, two theories of color that are allegedly supported by variation in normal human color vision. We mostly discuss color relationalism, defended at length in Jonathan Cohen's The Red and the Real, and argue that the theory has insuperable problems.

This chapter explores the opportunities and limitations of the ideal of transparency in responsible innovation, by consulting the virtual case of "The Circle", a company which appears in Dave Eggers' novel The Circle. The Circle is a high-tech company with the main purpose of being responsive to societal needs. They want to eradicate unethical behaviour in society, enhance public health and make a positive impact on the environment. The ultimate goal of The Circle is to reach 100% full transparency in (...) the world, which is impossible without any societal desirability. In first instance, it is free choice of people to accept and embrace the products and services of The Circle, who invest resources in keeping customers happy and in raising awareness about the dangers of privacy. The chapter concludes that The Circle meets the requirements regarding the outcomes of responsible innovation, at least to a certain extent, while at the same time, one feels unease about certain activities they undertake. (shrink)

This chapter has two objectives. The first is to clarify Aristotle’s view of the first principles of the sciences. The second is to stake out a critical position with respect to this view. The paper sketches an alternative to Aristotle’s intuitionism based in part on the use of quantitative inductive logics.

I argue that Plato thinks that a sunaition is a mere tool used by a soul (or by the cosmic nous) to promote an intended outcome. In the first section, I develop the connection between sunaitia and Plato’s teleology. In the second section, I argue that sunaitia belong to Plato’s theory of the soul as a self-mover: specifically, they are those things that are set in motion by the soul in the service of some goal. I also argue against several (...) popular and long-standing interpretations, namely, that sunaitia correspond to Aristotle’s idea of hypothetical necessity, that sunaitia are the ‘how’ in an explanation (whereas the true cause is the ‘why’), and that Plato’s causal views should be read through Aristotle’s fourfold schema. I conclude the article by surveying the history of sunaitia after Plato’s usage. (shrink)